Ψ Psychsational

The Psychological and Physical Effects of Smoking Tobacco Cigarettes

noreply@blogger.com (Jessica M. Stratton) — Tue, 08 Dec 2009 20:26:00 +0000

Abstract
Tobacco smoking can potentially be a death sentence when continued over a long period of time. There are numerous devastating physical and psychological effects from smoking cigarettes. Some of the more well known effects are lung cancer, esophageal cancer, and depression. However, there are other effects not well known like the effects of second hand smoke in pregnancy and in relationship to pets. There is also a great deal of minor effects like confusion in the older population, possible development of diabetes, and could potentially put one at more risk for developing pneumonia.

The Psychological and Physical Effects of Smoking Tobacco Cigarettes

Directly following the Civil War in the United States, more time and money was devoted to the manufacturing of cigarettes (Fanny & Vera, 2009). Since then, tobacco smoking has become a widely accepted social behavior (Baldauf, 2008). In the mid 1900s, research was conducted to show the devastating psychological and physical effects of tobacco cigarette smoking. Despite this research, according to the National Institute on drug Abuse, “between 1964 and 2004, cigarette smoking caused an estimated 12 million deaths, including 4.1 million deaths from cancer, and 5.5 million deaths from cardiovascular disease” (2009). Furthermore, according to the American Heart Association, in the United States alone “an estimated 26.2 million men and 20.9 million women are smokers” (2009). In order to understand why billions of people around the world continue to smoke, even though it is common knowledge how devastating cigarette smoking is, one has to take a more in depth look at the psychological and physical effects of smoking tobacco cigarettes within and outside the United States.

A broad article on smoking entitled A Profile of Tobacco Smoking by Martin Jarvis gave a general overview of physical and psychological dependence in regards to smoking tobacco. Jarvis’ research was conducted in London and states that,
smoking is strongly linked to a variety of other life-style indicators. It is associated with alcohol consumption and with caffeine intake, and is particularly common among patients with depressive illnesses and schizophrenia (1994).

When looking at further patterns of smoking, Jarvis goes on to note that in London male smokers smoke on average 17 cigarettes per day and females 14 per day (1994); Jarvis continues in saying that most smokers admit that they would like to give the habit up. Jarvis states, in a recent survey of British adults, 58% of cigarette smokers said that they wanted to give up smoking altogether, but of those who wanted to give [it] up only 13% percent thought that if they decided to give up [smoking] during the next 2 months, they would be very likely to succeed (1994).

Jarvis also speculates that when looking at the statistics for those who cease smoking, that most of those who claimed that they would be able to stop in the next two months would in fact not be able to. This is curious because “nicotine does not lead to intoxication and euphoriant effects are almost entirely absent” (Jarvis, 1994). Yet, “patients seeking treatment for heroin, cocaine[,] and alcohol rate cigarette smoking as at least as hard to give up as their problem drug, but significantly less enjoyable” (Jarvis, 1994). Smoking causes significant levels of dependence in the smoker and turns into a compulsive habit physically, and psychologically it calms the smoker down despite that nicotine is a stimulant. Jarvis goes on to conclude that a large number of people “in the developed world” (Jarvis, 1994) continue to smoke despite “the overwhelming evidence that [tobacco smoking] constitutes the single biggest cause of premature death” (Jarvis, 1994).
Moving on from London to Canada, Salma Khaled and her associates conducted research on depression and cigarette smoking in an article entitled Cigarette Smoking, Stages of Change, and Major Depression in the Canadian Population. Since the early 1980s, associations of cigarette smoking with depressed mood and major depression have been reported among psychiatric patients, smoking cessation patients, twin samples, and general population samples” (Johnson & Breslau 2004). Khaled’s research is the first to examine the Canadian population in regards to seeing if smoking and depression are correlated. Starting in January 2002 until December 2003, Khaled and her colleagues utilized a “cross-sectional household survey conducted by Statistics Canada” and 49,249 responded (Khaled, Bulloch, Exner, Patten, 2009). The results showed that there was an “elevated prevalence of major depression […] in current smokers at 10.6%” (Khaled, Bulloch, Exner, Patten, 2009). Furthermore with those that used to smoke, it was less at 5.3%, and those that had never smoked came in at 3.9% (Khaled, Bulloch, Exner, Patten, 2009). Khaled concluded that there is definite significance in the rate of depression in those that smoke versus those that have never smoked. She also believes that more research should be done on this topic. Also, avenues to help current smokers quit smoking should take the depression component into consideration and have some type of depression support while attempting to quit (Khaled, Bulloch, Exner, Patten, 2009).

There is also a hypothesized connection between obesity and smoking. The next article Association of Smoking in Adolescence with Abdominal Obesity in Adulthood: A Follow-Up Study of 5 Birth Cohorts of Finnish Twins, Suoma Sarni and associates examine the correlation between smoking and obesity. Sarni and her colleagues used a longitudinal study with her population being “5 consecutive and complete birth cohorts of Finnish twins born in 1975 to 1979” (2009). After extensive research, Sarni and her team concluded that there is a correlation between tobacco smoking in adolescence and obesity in adulthood. It was found that “both abdominal obesity and smoking are major risk factor for metabolic dysfunction and cardiovascular disease” (Saarni, Pietilainen, Kantonen, Rissanen, Kaprio, 2009). And furthermore, “the life expectancy of obese smokers can be reduced by as much as 13 years” and that more research should be done on this topic because there is little in the field (Saarni, Pietilainen, Kantonen, Rissanen, Kaprio, 2009).

While the physical effects of tobacco smoking can be direct, which has been shown in the past few articles, there is also physical effects when a mother smokes while being pregnant. According to North Carolina’s Smoking Gain? Secondhand Smoke Exposure Influences Body Weight, Lipid Profiles in Offspring by Victoria McGovern about “780,000 U.S. women continue smoking throughout pregnancy each year despite warnings about the elevated risk of birth defects” (2009). A mouse study was conducted and provides new evidence that even exposure to second hand smoke during pregnancy could “lead to weight gain in offspring as well as changes in lipid profiles that may increase the chances of cardiovascular disease later in life” (McGovern, 2009). There was, however, a noted difference between male and female pups. Female pups were exposed to cigarette smoke a total of “4 hours a day, 5 days a week, throughout pregnancy” (McGovern, 2009) and were found to have “significant increases in HLD, LDL, and total protein” (McGovern, 2009). However, these finding were not observed when the adult female offspring were fed high-fat diets. However, “smoke-exposed male pups gained more weight and displayed altered lipid profiles compared with their sex-match unexposed counterparts when they were fed a high-fat diet but showed little evidence of an effect of smoke exposure when fed a normal diet” (McGovern, 2009). In conclusion, second hand smoke or directly smoking while pregnant can have a significant effect on the offspring of mothers that smoke during pregnancy.

Second-hand smoke hurts more than just fetuses; second hand smoke also has been shown to have devastating effects on pets. In the 2009 article, Knowledge of Risk Could Make Pet Owners Stop Smoking, Milberger states that “exposure to cigarette smoke is linked to lymphoma in cats and lung cancer in dogs” (Milberger et al, 2009) and it was hypothesized that by raising the awareness of pet owners to what they are doing to their pets may cause them to want to quit smoking. A web survey was created to investigate pet owners and of the 3,293 that responded, “that 21 percent were smokers and 27 percent lived with smokers” (Milberger et al, 2009). It was concluded that of the pet owners who responded to the survey, that “information on the dangers of pets’ exposure to smoke would motivate them to quit” (Milberger et al, 2009) in 28.4 percent of the people surveyed; it was also found that 8.7 percent of those who lived with a smoker would ask their roommate to quit, and 14.2 percent would refrain from smoking at home as not to endanger the pets in the household (Milberger et al, 2009). There are indeed physical effects that not only affect the smoker, but endanger their pets as well.

While there have been a great deal of pessimistic speculations and studies conducted to show the negative effects of tobacco smoking, it has also been found that “for smokers, nicotine has a positive effect on attention, cognition[,] and mood” (Ghatan et al., 1997) which could be a reason that depressed individuals turn to cigarette smoking to cope with day-to-day life. However, the benefits in no way compare to the devastating effects. The lethal combination of tar, nicotine, and carbon monoxide found in cigarettes eventually, if smoked for years, can lead to lung cancer, cardiovascular disease, emphysema, high blood pressure, COPD (Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disorder), bladder cancer, esophageal cancer, kidney cancer, pancreatic cancer, and cervical cancer (Petrie, 2005). Remember that cigarette smoking is the main cause of preventable death within the United States and Smoking “could kill more than a billion people this century, according to the World Health Organization” (Lyon, n.d.). To put it in perspective, the death toll would equal “the number who would die if the Titanic sank every 24 minutes for the next 100 years” (Lyon, n.d.).

Next, in Sexually Dimorphic Effect of an Acute Smoking Manipulation on Skin Resistance But Not on Heart-Rate During a Cognitive Verbal Task, “in a two day, two session experiment” (Furedy, Algan, Vincent, Demirgoren, Pogun, 2001) Furedy hypothesizes that there is a difference in the physical effects of smoking depending on if one is a male or female. The study began with males and females between the ages of 18 to 22 being divided into four groups: (a) male non-smokers (n=5), (b) male smokers (n=6), (c) female non-smokers (n=12), and (d) female smokers (n=8) (Furedy, Algan, Vincent, Demirgoren, Pogun, 2001). The smokers on average smoked at least 10 cigarettes per day. Then 10 hours prior to their initial testing, participants were instructed not to smoke and furthermore not to consume other stimulants like coffee or tea. The four groups were then administered a cognitive verbal test and a cognitive spatial task. In between the test/task, participants were allowed a fifteen minute break, in which smokers were permitted to smoke a cigarette and non-smokers were placed in a room to relax. It was shown that during the test/task with the 15 minute break for smoking, that the smoking period produced arousal in females and conversely produced relaxation in males. Furdey concluded that this type of research is very important “in making distinctions among psychological, introspective-psychological, and objective-psychological variables” (Furedy, Algan, Vincent, Demirgoren, Pogun, 2001). There is a distinct difference in how tobacco smoking physically effects males and females.

Currently, cigarettes “contain more than 4000 chemical compounds and at least 400 toxic substances” (Quitsmokingsupport.com, n.d.)--and while the physical effects have more clear-cut correlations when examining “the number of cigarettes smoked, whether the cigarette has a filter, and how the tobacco has been prepared” (Kennedy, n.d.), the psychological effects of cigarette smoking are more elusive and have not been studied as in-depth. Rodhe and his associates randomly selected 1,709 participants from nine high schools in Western Oregon and conducted a longitudinal study that spanned from 1987 until 1999 (2002). The study showed a great deal of results including demographics (including low parental education), familial smoking, and familial psychopathology; however, the results that were most concerning and relevant to psychological effects was the category of lifetime psychopathology. According to Rohde, those who smoke are more likely to develop “Major Depressive Disorder (MDD), Alcohol [use], Drug [use], ADHD/DIS, and the antisocial personality disorder (Rohde, Kahler, Lewinsohn, Brown, 2002). Therefore, there is a correlation to smoking and serious psychological effects.

Along with the more obvious and previously mentioned physical effects like cancer and psychological effects like depression, there are also not-as-obvious psychological and physical effects. According to research, smoking may cloud the mind, bring on diabetes, and cause increased amounts of infection.
A [...] study in the Archives of Internal Medicine found that smoking in middle age is linked to memory problems and to a slide in reasoning abilities, though these risks appeared lessened for those who'd long quit; this is important, the authors wrote, because other research has shown that people with mild cognitive impairment in midlife develop dementia at an accelerated rate (Lyon, n.d.).

Next, smoking can also increase one’s risk for Type II diabetes. The Journal of the American Medical Association “found that across 25 prior studies, current smokers have a 44 percent greater chance of developing type 2 diabetes (Lyon, n.d.). And finally the federal Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices found “very strong data showing that the risk of infection by pneumonia-causing bacteria is substantially greater for smokers than for nonsmokers” (Lyon, n.d.).

In conclusion, there are numerous devastating physical and psychological effects to smoking tobacco cigarettes. According to Health.com, “between 1997 and 2001, smoking was responsible for $167 billion in annual health-care costs and lost productivity in the U.S. alone” (Health.com, 2009). While there are still studies being conducted and findings being disputed, one thing can be sure: tobacco smoking can be lethal. Fortunately, in recent years, the popularity of cigarette smoking has decreased. At this time, there are “more former smokers than current smokers in the United States” (Brannon & Feist, 2010); this recent decrease is due to new laws about where smoking can take place, recent ads promoting that smoking is “un-cool” to adolescents, and campaigns to show the detrimental effects of smoking (Media Release, 2003). As more information is broadcast to the general public about the physical and psychological effects of smoking, we can only hope to see a larger reduction of cigarette smoking in the near future.

References

American Heart Association (2009). Cigarette Smoking Statistics. Retrieved from
http://www.americanheart.org/presenter.jhtml?identifier=4559

Baldauf, S. (2008). Stop Smoking: Secrets of Successful Quitters. Retrieved from
http://health.usnews.com/articles/health/living-well-usn/2008/12/16/stop-smoking-secrets-of-successful-quitters.html.

Brannon, L, & Feist, J. (2010). Health Psychology: An Introduction to Behavior and Health.
Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning.

Fanny & Vera. (2009) Tips for Tobacco Users: Tobacco Use During the Civil War. Retrieved
from http://www.shasta.com/suesgoodco/newcivilians/index.htm.

Furedy, J. Algan, O., Vincent, A., Demirgoren, S., Pogun, S. (2001). Sexually Dimorphic Effect
of an acute Smoking Manipulation on skin Resistance But not on Heart-Rate During a Cognitive Verbal Task. Integrative Physiological and Behavioral Science. 34(4), 219-226.

Ghatan et al. (1997). Cerebral Effects of Nicotine During Cognition in Smokers and Non-
Smokers. Psychopharmacology 136. Retrieved from http://search.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.roosevelt.edu:2048/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=4694640&loginpage=Login.asp&site=ehost-live

Health.com (2009). How Much Money Are You Spending on Cigarettes? Retrieved from
http://www.health.com/health/condition-article/0,,20209268,00.html

Jarvis, M. J. (1994). A Profile of Tobacco Smoking. Addiction 89. Retrieved from
http://web.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.roosevelt.edu:2048/ehost/folder?vid=4&hid=2&sid=3a
f6bd1d-91d7-468d-aef1-fd3a90448e47%40sessionmgr10

Johnson, E. & Breslau N. (2004) Is the Association of smoking and depression a recent
phenomenon? Society for Nicotine and Tobacco. 8(2), 257-262.

Khaled, S. M., Bullovh, A., Exner, D.V, Patten, S.B. (2009). Cigarrette Smoking, Stages of
Change and Major Depression in the Canadian Population. Journal of La Revue Canadienne de Psychiatrie, 54(3), 204-208.

Kennedy, R (n.d.) Smoking Risks. Retrieved from http://www.medical
library.net/content/view/530/41/

Lyon, L. (n.d.) 12 Reasons to Really Quit Smoking. Retrieved from
http://health.usnews.com/articles/health/cancer/2008/11/14/12-reasons-to-really-quit-smoking.html?s_cid=related-links:TOP

Petrie, G. (2005). Smoking-Health Risks. Retrieved from
http://www.netdoctor.co.uk/health_advice/facts/smokehealth.htm

Rohde, P., Kahler C., Lewinsohn P., Brown, R. (2002). Psychiatric Disorders, Familial Factors,
and Cigarette Smoking: II. Associations with Progression to Daily Smoking. Society for Research on Nicotine and Tobacco. 6(1) 119-132.
Media Release (2003). Gory Anti-Smoking Ads Encourage Kids to Quit. Retrieved from
http://www.quit.org.au/media.asp?ContentID=7728

McGovern, V. (2009). Smoking Gain? Secondhand Smoke Exposure Influences Body Weight,
Lipid Profiles in Offspring. Journal of Environmental Health Perspectives. 117(7), 310.

Milberger et al. (2009). Knowledge of Risk Could Make Pet Owners Stop Smoking. Nursing
Standard, 23(31), 2-3. Doi:10.1136/rc.2008.028282

NIDA (2009). NIDA InfoFacts: Cigarettes and Other Tobacco Products. Retrieved from
http://www.nida.nih.gov/infofacts/tobacco.html.

Saarni, S.E, Pietilainen, K., Kantonen, S., Rissanen, A., Kaprio, J. (2009). Associations of
smoking in Adolescence With Abnormal Obesity in Adulthood: A Follow-Up Study of 5 Birth Cohorts of Finnish Twins. American Journal of Public Health, 99(2), 348-354.
Quitsmokingsupport.com (n.d.) Have you Ever Wondered What’s in a Cigarette? Retrieved
from http://www.quitsmokingsupport.com/whatsinit.htm

Dairy Queen Miracle Treat Day August 7

noreply@blogger.com (Jessica M. Stratton) — Wed, 06 Aug 2008 04:03:00 +0000

Start making room in your tummy now: Miracle Treat Day comes to thousands of Dairy Queens across North America on Thursday, August 7.

The way this works: the proceeds from every DQ Blizzard sold that day go to the Children's Miracle Network, which helps families cover their expenses when their kids get sick.

Please try to take time out and grab a blizzard this Thursday and do what you can to spread the word around!

The Human Brain: The Miracle of Reading

noreply@blogger.com (Jessica M. Stratton) — Sat, 24 May 2008 04:07:00 +0000

I found this fascinating. It is amazing how the human mind works.

The American Psychological Association: Ethics Code

noreply@blogger.com (Jessica M. Stratton) — Tue, 20 May 2008 14:24:00 +0000

Just like in school districts and work places, the field of Psychology has a code of ethics. A code of ethics is a set of rules which holds higher standards and maintains the integrity in the field of psychological testing. The American Psychological Association identifies nine areas in the ethics code in regards to psychological testing. By going through each of the nine areas which include competence, informed consent, knowledge of results, confidentiality, test security, test construction and publication, automated scoring/interpretation systems, qualified persons, and test user qualifications, one will grasp reasons why higher standards and a code of ethics is instituted in the field of Psychology with respect to psychological testing.

The first area in the ethics code dealing with psychological testing is identified by the APA as competence. In order to administer and employ tests correctly, one has to be competent, according to Hogan, in the “assessment concepts” and “methodology” (590). Hogan goes on to state that the concepts a psychologist must be familiar with are “norms, reliability, validity, and “test construction,” and in regards to methodology “administration, scoring, and technical characteristics” (590). Psychologists who administer psychological tests must always stay current on their understanding and expertise concerning psychological tests.

The second area of the ethics code recognized is informed consent. This basically means that a subject’s participation in testing must be voluntary. In order for it to be voluntary, a person has to be informed in words they will understand exactly what they are agreeing to by consenting to take part in the testing. The participant must also be informed according to Hogan that they may “withdraw consent at any time” (591). For example, if an individual is taking a test on racial ethnicity and after page three feels uncomfortable with a concept he/she is being questioned on, the test taker has the right to withdraw their consent and opt to stop the testing.

In addition to competence and informed consent, another area of the ethics code is knowledge of results. A person that participates in a test has the right to know their results. These results should be easy to comprehend for the participant and above all they should walk away knowing exactly what their results meant.

The next area of the ethics code is confidentiality. Only under extreme circumstances is confidentiality broken without consent. Otherwise a psychologist should keep the results and information gained from the testing completely confidential. This confidentiality also carries over, as stated by Hogan, into “record keeping” (592). The records should be safe and secure at all times unless consent is given by the test taker to have the results released to another professional.

Then, test security is the fifth area of the ethics code. None of the secrets of how the material is scored and interpreted should be released to anyone. There are exceptions to this oath such as in training new psychologists on how to use the instrument. Other than that, however, the oath to preserve the integrity of the psychological testing methods should be kept within the profession of Psychology.

Additionally, test construction and publication plays an important role in the ethics code. As explained by Hogan, test developers “must maintain high standards in developing tests and refrain from making unwarranted claims about the quality of their products” (592). These developers must be knowledgeable in their field and understand the relevance of their test. Hogan points out that the test developer should also be extremely familiar with the concepts of “reliability, validity, and norms” and apply that knowledge when constructing their own tests (592-593).

Another point in the ethics code is automated scoring/interpretation systems. The advances in technology within the psychology field have now created computer programs that can interpret the tests. Nevertheless, psychologists are still responsible for the correct interpretation of the results. As part of the code of ethics, psychologists can not transfer the blame of invalid test interpretation to the software’s creator.

Furthermore, under the code of ethics, Hogan goes on to explain that psychologists are responsible to make sure that unqualified people that are connected to them do not have any part in the testing process. Unqualified people are not allowed to administer the test nor interpret the results. Psychologists have to again take care to preserve the integrity of the tests and only allow trained professionals to assist them in their testing should they need assistance (593).

And lastly, test user qualifications are a very important aspect in the code of ethics. Test users have to have specific qualifications to order and administer tests. According to Hogan, Standards established a three-tier system to define test users credentials; tier one is called Level A which requires “minimal training,” “reading simple directions” (594). Level B calls for “some knowledge of technical characteristics of tests” and Level C “wants advanced training in test theory” (594).

So after reviewing the nine factors that make up the American Psychological Association’s code of ethics, one can see the need for such rules within the field of Psychological testing. In my opinion, the ethics code is vital to the field of Psychology. With each rule, psychologists aspire to keep the integrity of psychological tests. So as one notices, the ethics code is an important part in the field of Psychology.

The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory versus the Beck Depression Inventory

noreply@blogger.com (Jessica M. Stratton) — Tue, 20 May 2008 14:21:00 +0000

Within the realm of Psychology, psychological testing plays an important role in finding out the mental status of a client. The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) is a comprehensive inventory that has a great deal to offer in the world of Psychology. Also, within the specific domain personality tests, the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) also is a very powerful tool for Psychologists nowadays. By taking a closer look at the key features of the MMPI and the BDI along with the benefits and the disadvantages of the tests, one will note that the disadvantages are minor and that these tests are the vital in today’s society.

The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) was first developed in the year 1942. However, the test that is used today is actually the second revision which was instituted in 1989 and is known as the MMPI-2. According to Hogan, the MMPI-2 requires anywhere from 60 to 90 minutes to finish and has a whopping 567 test items to complete (487). Furthermore, the MMPI-2 is the “most frequently used, most widely researched, and most often referenced tests” explains Hogan (487). The MMPI initially had two main features which were (1) “validity indexes were explicitly used” and (2) “the test used criterion-keying to develop nine clinical scales” which was later changed to a total of ten scales (487). Hogan goes on to state that with the revision of the MMPI of 1989, the MMPI-2 removed all of it’s gender specific references, it used clinical scales instead of diagnostic categories, it developed entirely new norms, and it’s original T-score changed from 70 to 65 (488).

Next, the Beck Depression Inventory offered a new technique for diagnosis of those suffering from any spectrum of depression. The Beck Depression Inventory (BDI-II) is not as predominately ranked in use as the MMPI-2, however, it ranks in at a close second. The BDI-II is a tool in Psychology for measuring the severity of depression. According to Hogan, this test is administered to both adolescents and adults and determines by responses on a four point scale if there is a “major problem” or if it is “not a problem” (501). The BDI-II consists of only 21 items and takes only five to ten minutes to complete entirely. The 21 items constructs a score between 0-63; 0-13 is considered minimal depression; 14-19 is considered mild depression; 20-28 is moderate depression; and 29-53 is considered severe depression (501).

With regard to the MMPI-2, while it is has many benefits to the field of Psychology, it also has a few disadvantages. First off, the MMPI-2 is a very time consuming test. While an average person can finish the test in 60 to 90 minutes, a person with a lower reading ability can take up to two or more hours to complete. Furthermore, Hogan points out that the MMPI-2 only measures a total of four underlying dimensions, two of them being “psychotic mentation” and “neurotic tendencies” (495). However, with the BDI-II compared to the MMPI-2, the benefits outweigh the disadvantages. The BDI is a majorly useful tool for figuring out the severity of depression which is also considered the common cold of psychological ailments. Almost everyone in their lives will suffer at least one bout of depression. Using the BDI-II, it is quick and efficient to find out the severity of a person’s depression. The test again only takes five to ten minutes and all the questions are straightforward, simple, and at a sixth grade reading level.

Although it seems that the BDI-II is a little more progressed, user friendly, and less time consuming, the MMPI-2 offers a variety of benefits. It says a lot that it is ranked number one as the most used test. However, I believe that with more future revisions, the MMPI-2 will become more like the BDI-II. In my opinion, I think that both are useful for measuring different aspects in a person. Even though the MMPI-2 is more time consuming, I think that I would fall into the mainstream in believing that the MMPI-2 will be my number one used test when I earn my PH.D or PSY.D. So, while there are some advantages and some disadvantages to the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (2) and the Beck Depression Inventory (2), it is clear that both are vital in the field of Psychology. They are a pertinent tool for Psychologists and both the comprehensive inventory known as the MMPI-2 and the specific domain personality test known as the BDI-II are extremely vital in today’s society.

Projective Personality Techniques

noreply@blogger.com (Jessica M. Stratton) — Tue, 20 May 2008 14:16:00 +0000

Projective techniques are quite controversial in today’s society. While being a staple in the field of Psychology for many years, projective techniques are a very enthralling subject. Personality tests such as the Rorschach have made their way into movies, cartoons, and the media with some guest appearances. Some people think that these types of projective tests are pointless, while others see them as a window into a person’s soul. When examining the characteristics, uses, and forewarnings, one will be more informed on the projective personality techniques and exactly what projective techniques are doing in the field of Psychology.

As noted by Hogan, projective tests embody two main characteristics. First off, the test items are usually somewhat ambiguous. By saying that the test’s questions are ambiguous, it is meant that it is hard to tell what the test’s items are exactly trying to measure. The second characteristic of personality techniques is that they are in a constructed-response format. These two characteristics relate to the projective hypothesis because “if the stimulus for a response is ambiguous, then the response itself will be determined by the examinee’s personality dynamics” according to Hogan (521). Furthermore, with the constructed-response format, the test taker’s “response[s] will be formulated in terms of the person’s desires, fantasies, inclinations, fears, and motives” (521).

In regards to the uses of projective techniques, there are core two uses. Projective techniques are used for “assessment of individual cases in clinical, counseling, and school psychology.” Besides being used in clinical, counseling, and school psychology, projective techniques are also utilized in research. There are certain indicators that prompt the use of personality tests. For example, if a child or adult has a low reading ability, a projective test is usually preferred to written test. A projective test would not require any reading since most personality tests are verbal. Also, it is harder to “fake good” or “fake bad” with personality tests because of the ambiguity of the stimuli. And thirdly, projective tests may be beneficial for a therapist in judging a client’s initial basis (524).

Furthermore, for example, with an intelligence test, there is a specific set of rules that must be followed by a psychologist when administering a personality test to a patient or client. So, when someone else looks at the results of a non-personality test like an Intelligence test for example, they have a good idea of what was asked on the test, that the entire test was completed, and that the test was scored properly. With a personality test such at the Thematic Apperception Test, not every single card is used and instruction for the test’s administration is very simplistic. So unlike an intelligence test, it would be hard for someone who did not administer the test to exactly know the results and what was done within the test period. The same goes for the Rorschach inkblot test with the numerous numbers of cards and only a few being selected for the patient.

Personally, I am one that believes in projective personality techniques. I think that the free-response format allows a psychologist to truly understand a person. Knowing whether a person views a neutral picture of a situation as evil and making up a story behind it, there is no other test that can create that connection and deep expression of what they are thinking and feeling. When I am done with graduate school and receive my PSY.D or PH.D, I know that these are definitely tools that I am going to utilize in my therapy practices.

So in conclusion, after going through the characteristics, uses, and forewarnings of projective personality techniques, I have come to the conclusion that they are an important asset to any Psychologist for school, clinical, and counseling. While the test questions are ambiguous, I still feel that the personality test will give me a better understanding of my patient than a written test. Especially if I am counseling children, I think that a personality test would be more appropriate to start off and get to know my client better. Even though a test like the Rorschach is not being taught in schools as a valuable tool, I believe that the uses are as important as the Thematic Apperception Test. Ambiguously open-ended tests (like the Rorschach and Thematic Apperception Test) let a client splash their personality all over the pages and let the words flow from their subconscious. I am glad a facility like Roosevelt contains some psychology staff members that still find it pertinent to teach tests such as the Rorschach to future generations of Psychologist.

Personality Tests: Content, Criterion-Keying, Factor Analysis, and Theory Driven

noreply@blogger.com (Jessica M. Stratton) — Tue, 20 May 2008 14:09:00 +0000

An individual’s personality is as complex and personal as a fingerprint; yet there are personality tests out there nowadays that allow insight into an individual’s personality and / or emotional depths. In regards to personality, there are four major types of methods that a test developer can choose from when deciding what type of test he / she would like to construct. The tests options consist of content method, criterion-keying, factor analysis, and theory driven with each test having its own strengths and weaknesses.

First off, content method is a popular form of personality tests. An example of a content method personality test that might be given to patients during their therapy session is the Woodworth Personal Data Sheet. For example, if a person is using a content method test that is supposed to be measuring introversion, then the set of questions within the test would be dealing with how the individual relates to others. By the way a person answers his / her questions, the individual’s score can give an insight into his / her personality and tell if one of his / her traits is introversion or extraversion. On the plus side, the content method is simple and defines clearly what the test is seeking to evaluate. It is also easy to generate items using this approach and has good validity. However, some of the weaknesses of using the content method are that the responses are subject to distortion and, according to Hogan, one is able to “fake good” or “fake bad” when an individual taking the test knows what is being gauged (459).

Another test that is used in measuring personality is called criterion-keying. Criterion-keying uses the approach of “discrimination” (459). Two examples of this approach are the MMPI and the Strong Interest Inventory. Two well defined groups are used in the criterion-keying method; one group is deemed the “normal” group and the other is deemed the “criterion” group. The criterion group is distinctly defined as having a specific condition. Like the content method, the criterion-keying approach’s strength is that it is direct and simplistic. Another plus is that this approach also promotes the possibility of fresh research applications. On the other hand, according to Hogan, three of the test’s drawbacks are (a) “it’s extreme atheoretical orientation limits the generalizability of score interpretation,” (b) criterion-keying can only be used when well-defined criterion groups are present, (c) interpretation can be inaccurate (461).

Besides content method and criterion-keying, there is another personality test type that is known as factor analysis; this type of personality test, according to Hogan, “bring[s] order to an undifferentiated mass of items and responses” (462). Also like the criterion-keying approach, factor analysis also produces a hefty amount of research. Conversely, the first weakness of factor analysis is that much of the test’s validity is based on the original “pool of items” (462). In addition to the items, there are numerous disputes among professionals about the correctness of the diverse methodologies. Then there is the point that most of the final results of factor analysis tests are fluid versus definitive. A great example of factor analysis is the NEO Personality Inventory.

And lastly, the fourth and final major personality test is known as theory-driven. Hogan explains that “the test developer adopts a particular theory about the human personality, the build test items to reflect [his / her] theory” (463). This theory can be broad or can be narrow depending on the test developer and how much he / she wants to cover within his / her theory. One advantage of the theory-driven approach is that it supplies an “operational definition” which encourages further research on the matter which can lead to better development of the test (463). Two core shortcomings of the theory-driven approach are the theory’s validity and how soundly the test mirrors the test developer’s theory.

All in all, by taking a look at content method, criterion-keying, factor analysis, and theory-driven personality tests, it is noted that each test has its own strengths and weaknesses. When designing a test, a test developer must choose which personality test method is right for them. In my opinion, there is not one correct or an incorrect method to choose. Each method, whether it is content method, criterion-keying, factor analysis, or theory-driven, has its own benefits and detriments. A test developer would just have to choose the method that would work best with his / her ideas and aspirations for what he / she envisions their test being.

Accountability and Standards-based Education

noreply@blogger.com (Jessica M. Stratton) — Sat, 03 May 2008 20:16:00 +0000

Within the confines of a classroom, it is the teacher’s responsibility to present material to better the education of his/her students. Whether it is English, mathematics, history, or a foreign language, a student needs to leave the classroom with a certain amount of information that will help them in advancing to the next stage of their educational goals. In the 1960s, a movement emerged that forced teachers to be responsible for their student’s progress within the educational system; this was known as the accountability movement. By taking a closer look at the origins of the accountability movement, reasons behind it, and the role of achievement tests, one can truly grasp the impact that the accountability movement had on the United States.

Before the 1960s and the materialization of the accountability movement, teachers did not have a specific curriculum to abide by. For example, there was no particular set of information that a student had to master before moving from sophomore year of high school to senior year of high school. The accountability movement which originated in the 1960s has evolved into what is now known as standards-based education. According to Hogan, the standards-based education requires (a) “clear identification of content for students to learn,” (b) “specification of required levels of performance,” and (c) “assurance that students have the opportunity to learn the material” (422).

So, why did the United States decide that education was an important aspect that needed more emphasis and revamping? There are three main causes that Hogan identifies for the emergence of the accountability movement include Russia’s launching of Sputnik, a remarkable swell in financial support for education, and the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) (422). In the 1950s, the launch of Sputnik made Americans realize that they were not the world’s leader in science, technology, and education which required Americans to step up their game to keep their reputation. The launch of Sputnik lead to an increase in funding for education, which in turn lead to the ESEA which contributed to educational efforts by
incorporating federal funding.

Furthermore, a student’s learning can be gauged by the use of achievement batteries. An achievement test is a standardized test that measures an individual's knowledge in a particular subject area. Unlike an aptitude test which measures someone’s potential, an achievement test measures what an individual has already been taught. Most schools measure their accountability by how their students score on these achievement tests. By paying attention to the results, faculty and teachers can distinguish where their efforts are lacking, where their efforts are succeeding, and can reevaluate their current approaches to the curriculum.

Therefore, since the 1960s, teachers have been forced to be held liable for their student’s educational progress and ability to learn inside the classroom. This radical change in responsibility was started in the 1950s due to Sputnik, more funding, and ESEA. This ultimately resulted in the accountability movement which lead up to what is nowadays the standards-based education. By using achievement tests in schools, teachers can measure their progress as educators and see their strengths and weaknesses in their methods.

Separated at Birth: The Benefits and Detriments of Male Circumcision

noreply@blogger.com (Jessica M. Stratton) — Tue, 29 Apr 2008 22:19:00 +0000

As far back as 3000 BC, Egyptians and Aztecs began performing circumcision for purposes of hygiene (Circumcision - History and Recent Trends). A few centuries later, the Old Testament (Genesis 17:10-11) proclaimed “…You shall be circumcised in the flesh of your foreskin, and it shall be a sign of the covenant between [God] and you” (Reading the Old Testament). Then, the procedure gained popularity as a routine surgery in America in the late nineteenth century when in 1896 a very popular parenting book entitled All About Baby recommended circumcision for most boys to “halt the vile habit of masturbation” (Mothers Who Think). Nowadays, sixty percent of American males are circumcised in the United States (Infant Male Circumcision is not in the Best Interests of the Health & Rights of the Child). While there are some minor arguable benefits to circumcision such as reduced risks of urinary tract infections, cancer of the penis, transmitting STDs, there is the possibility of trauma to the infant, infection, and deformities not to mention sex and health risks as adults.

In the U.S., over 1.25 million [male] infants are annually circumcised; that’s more than 3,300 babies each day and one child every 26 seconds (Infant Male Circumcision is not in the Best Interests of the Health & Rights of the Child). In males, circumcision is a surgical procedure that removes some or the entire foreskin from the penis. Most male infants are circumcised at birth in the hospital where they are born. Others are circumcised as part of a religious ceremony. Possible benefits to circumcision are reduced risks of urinary tract infections, reduced risk of penile cancer, and reduced risk of transmitting STDs.

Firstly, it is true that circumcision does reduce the risks of urinary tract infections; however, studies find that urinary tract infections are only reduced during the infant’s first year of life. Secondly, it is proposed that circumcision reduced the risk of penile cancer. According to VHI Healthcare, penile cancer is an “extremely rare cancer” (VHI Healthcare). Also, VHI Healthcare goes on to state that “good personal hygiene is equally protective [against penile cancer as circumcision]” (VHI Healthcare). And thirdly, it is believed that men who are circumcised have less of a chance of transmitting and contracting STDs. This theory is true to a certain extent because according to Maggie Fox of Reuters.com, “sexual intercourse may cause tiny tears in the foreskin, allowing [viruses] into the bloodstream” (Fox). However it is also stated that if a man uses condoms or not is more “important in STD prevention than whether or not he is circumcised.” So while these benefits to a certain extent are valid, the American Academy of Pediatrics states that “the benefits of circumcision are not significant enough to recommend circumcision as a routine procedure” (VHI Healthcare).

In addition to the benefits of circumcision, there are also a number of detriments. Some of the detriments include trauma and shock to the infant, irritation and infection, deformities of the penis, and absence of normal function of the penis. First of all, one major detriment of circumcision is trauma and shock to the infant. A recent study conducted by a group of Canadian researchers concluded that circumcision has “long lasting traumatic effects” on the infant. Researchers “tested 87infants at 4 months and 6 months of age. The boys who had been circumcised were more sensitive to pain than the uncircumcised boys. Differences between groups were significant regarding (1) facial action, (2) crying time, and (3) assessments of pain.” The researchers believe that "neonatal circumcision may induce long-lasting changes in infant pain behavior because of alterations in the infant’s central neural processing of painful stimuli” (Taddio). After being circumcised, the open wound is left confined inside a diaper. The diaper prevents proper airflow to the wound which can interfere with the healing process. Furthermore, the diaper gets filled with urine and feces more than a couple times a day, which can lead to irritation and infection if any of the urine and/or feces gets inside the open wound. Also, due to complications and/or a lack of proper training, batched circumcisions can lead to penile deformities. Most deformities include portions of the foreskin that needed to be removed but were not which can cause psychological issues and self-consciousness. The psychological problems can lead to erectile dysfunction. However, some batched circumcision requires the male to have corrective surgery in order to be able to obtain an erection. Furthermore, a few cases have been so extreme that the entire penis has needed to be surgically removed.

In addition to the trauma and shock to the infant, irritation and infection, and deformities of the penis there is also an absence of normal function of the penis with circumcision. The first function of the foreskin is in protection. Like the female clitoris, the head of the penis is intended by nature to be a protected internal organ. When the foreskin is removed, the head of the penis is no longer protected so keratinization (callusing) occurs which causes a loss of sexual sensation and pleasure.

Also, gliding action is affected when the foreskin is removed. During sexual activity, the foreskin and glans work in together to create a complete sexual response. So a normal sexual response is not happening. Normal functioning also includes the non-abrasive gliding of the penis in and out of itself within the vagina which facilitates smooth and gratifying intercourse. Furthermore, without this gliding action, the corona of the circumcised penis can function as a one-way valve, dragging vaginal lubricants out into the drying air and making artificial lubricants essential for non-painful intercourse.
Thirdly the frenulum connects the inner foreskin to the underside of the glans of the penis. For many intact men, the penile frenulum is a male "G-spot" that is highly pleasurable when repeatedly stretched and relaxed during sexual activity. Depending on the surgical method used, the frenulum is partially to completely destroyed by circumcision

And finally, the foreskin contains several feet of blood vessels, including the frenular artery and branches of the dorsal artery. The loss of this rich vascularization interrupts normal blood flow to the shaft and glans of the penis, damaging the natural function of the penis and altering its development
According to VHI Healthcare, medically, the only valid reasons for male circumcision are Phimosis, Paraphimosis, and Balanitis which are all disorders where the foreskin hinders proper blood flow throughout the penis. Also, penile cancer that affects the foreskin is cause for removal of the foreskin. And finally painful sex due to improper retraction of the foreskin is also means for circumcision (VHI Healthcare). But usually these are not the reasons that male circumcisions are performed. The detriments of male circumcision vastly outweigh the benefits. Furthermore male circumcision is a procedure that should not be performed on all males. The procedure should only be performed if there is a problem affecting the foreskin and the blood flow of the penis, penile cancer, or if there is pain caused by the foreskin. More information should be brought to the parents’ attention as to what exactly they are agreeing when they decide to have their son circumcised.

Going Green: Saving the Planet one Car at a Time

noreply@blogger.com (Jessica M. Stratton) — Thu, 17 Apr 2008 18:17:00 +0000

For the past couple of years, global warming has become an important issue in today’s society. Throughout the United States, the Going Green Campaign draws more attention to the detriments global warming brings to the balance of our eco system. As the Earth’s average temperature is rising, glaciers are liquefying, hurricanes are hitting more frequently, and droughts and floods are destroying the land, and global warming is the culprit behind these environmental disasters (Allianz). With this newfound conviction to end global warming, many new innovations are available to aid in conserving energy. One major contribution from car manufacturers has been the introduction of the Hybrid car. Hybrid car engines reduce contaminants that contribute to global warming by one-third (National Resource Defense Council). With the Hybrid being a cross between a gasoline-powered car and an electric car, this technological novelty produces less pollution for the environment by reducing tailpipe emissions and improving mileage which contributes to the efforts to end global warming (How Hybrid Cars Work).

Remarkably, the Hybrid car gets around twenty to thirty more miles per gallon than standard automobiles. With the Hybrid car, mileage efficiency can be enhanced by having a smaller engine, lighter parts, and by reducing the number of cylinders. According to Nice and Layton, “composite materials like carbon fiber or lightweight metals like aluminum and magnesium can be used to reduce weight” in the Hybrid car’s structure (How Hybrid Cars Work). “A lighter vehicle” like the Hybrid “uses less energy each time you accelerate or drive up a hill” (How Hybrid Cars Work) which in turn will increase gas mileage. Also, the Hybrid car has a smaller engine which helps extend mileage. Most automobiles need a moderately large engine to create a sufficient amount of energy in order to rapidly accelerate. By making the engine smaller, it is more energy efficient. Furthermore, larger engines usually have additional cylinders, and each cylinder uses fuel every time the engine fires, even if the car is not in motion. So by constructing the Hybrid car with a smaller engine, making it have lighter parts, and lessening the number of cylinders, less gas per mile is achieved. By being able to use less gas per mile because of their design, Hybrid cars add to the fight against global warming.

While the Hybrid car gets more miles to the gallon, it also reduces tailpipe emissions such as carbon dioxide. According to Nice and Layton, the only requirements an automobile must meet to be marketed is it has to (1) “drive at least three hundred miles before re-fueling,” (2) “be refueled quickly and easily,” and (3) “keep up with the other traffic on the road” (How Hybrid Cars Work). While a gasoline-powered automobile meets these standards, it generates a hefty amount of pollution. An electric automobile, on the other hand, produces almost no pollution; however, it only can reach between fifty and one-hundred miles between recharges. By combining the gas-powered and electric car, the Hybrid is a “compromise.” It attempts to considerably “reduce the emissions of a gas-powered car while overcoming the shortcomings of an electric” (How Hybrid Cars Work). This is vital because from their tailpipes, cars release a pollutant called carbon dioxide. Scientists believe that the carbon dioxide emitted from cars contributes to global warming. Furthermore, an automobile that burns two times as much gas adds twice as much carbon dioxide in to the environment (How Hybrid Cars Work). So, Hybrid cars are aiding in the stop of global warming by reducing carbon dioxide tailpipe emissions by having a more energy efficient car.

In order to help cut global warming pollution, it is vital to incorporate conserving energy into a daily routine. Nowadays, the total carbon dioxide annually dumped into the atmosphere is one ton per person (Global Warming). Every time a more eco friendly product is purchased, it is contributing to the fight against global warming. Biodegradable and reusable products, even though small steps, assist the fight. Even a compact fluorescent light bulb when chosen over an incandescent bulb, keep nearly seven hundred pounds of carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere (Natural Defense Council). Like the compact fluorescent light bulb, Hybrid cars are just one more step toward helping the eco system and one more step toward immensely contributing to the efforts to end global warming.

Brain Dysfunction: Left Syndrome Hemineglect

noreply@blogger.com (Jessica M. Stratton) — Wed, 09 Apr 2008 02:52:00 +0000

Suppose one morning mom wakes up and noises indicate that she is primping herself in the bathroom. The blow-dryer flips on and off, her lipstick opens and closes, and scurrying through the make-up bag indicates that once again mom can not find her waterproof mascara. When she exits the bathroom and sits down to a plate of warm breakfast in front of her, horror is the only reaction. Mom’s hair is only brushed and styled on the right side—the left is still mangled and dripping wet from her shower. Mom has also only applied blush, lipstick, mascara, and eye shadow to right side of her face as well. Upon closer inspection she has also finished her breakfast and the left side is untouched. Mom gets up to leave the table not noticing a single difference between today and any other day. A short jaunt to the doctor, and a few psychological tests later, it is revealed that grandma has not gone crazy but is suffering from Hemineglect (Blakeslee & Ramachandran, 1998).

What is Left Hemineglect Syndrome?

In order to understand this condition, let’s break down the word. “Left” refers to the fact that this ailment directly affects the right hemisphere of the brain because the right brain controls the left area of the body. Hemineglect refers to “half” being neglected which is literally what happens. An entire half of the body (the left half) is neglected and neglect is, according to Meyers and Bierig, “…the inability of a patient to report or respond to a stimulus presented contralateral to the damaged hemisphere.”

However, Hemineglect presents itself in different intensities. “Left Hemineglect syndrome can range in severity from a simple rightward attentional bias to an inability to recognize one’s extremities are actually a part of one’s own body” (Bierig & Meyers, 2000).

What causes Hemineglect?

Hemineglect occurs when there is damage to the right hemisphere of the brain, often times following a stroke. The right hemisphere is now known to be central in (1) emotional behavior, (2) paralinguistic tasks, (3) facial recognition and most importantly (4) spatial attention (Bierig & Myers, 1998). Spatial attention with hemineglect patients is geared toward making all the attention focus in on the right of the visual field making it as if the left side is gone.

Signs of Hemineglect

There are a few exercises that will reveal the presence of hemineglect. One exercise is drawing. In pictures copied by a patient with hemineglect, there will be a tendency for leaving the left side of the drawing to be absent as seen in the figure to the right. The picture to the left is the original. The picture to the right is the drawing a patient with hemineglect created based off the original. As one will notice, the original clock includes all 12 numbers spaced equally around the circle whereas the patient’s drawing only includes numbers 1-7 and a good majority on the patient’s clock left side is blank. In regard to the houses, it is almost identical to the clocks; the right side of the drawing is packed with a mirror image of the original but the left side is again absent (Blakeslee & Ramachandran, 1998).

Elderly stroke Patients: Evaluation of a test battery for Hemineglect

This study was put together to (1) “measure performance of healthy elderly subjects on a better of validated tests for hemineglect in order to establish appropriate cut-off score” and (2) “to assess performance of a large sample of elderly stroke patients in a rehabilitation unit, using the same battery” (Bailey, et al., 2000).

The sample size had suffered from a stroke with in the past twelve months. There were 23 men and 23 women. 10 of those patients had brain damage to the right side, and 34 patients had left-sided damage, and 2 had bilateral damage. Within the control study there was another 43 non-brain damaged subjects willing to participate. Each subject was given the battery of tests which took twenty minutes per person. There were seven tests total. The tests consisted of star cancellation, line bisection, copy-a-daisy, the baking tray task, draw-a-clock, exploratory motor task, and personal neglect (Bailey, et al., 2000).

In the star cancellation, the subject was given a pen in which he/she was to cancel out as many stars as they could. There were “52 large stars on a page, 10 short words and 13 letters, randomly positioned with 56 small stars interspersed. The subjects were instructed to cross out…all the small starts” (Bailey, et al., 2000).

Next, the subjects were given 24 lines to bisect. The idea of this test was to see how close the subjects could get to the middle of the line.

Then, the subjects were instructed to copy-a-daisy. This was a task where they had to copy an image of a flower.

Next, the baking tray was a whiteboard that was about the size of a real baking tray where the subject had to, as symmetrically as they could, place fake buns across the white board. After, they were asked to draw a clock. In order to standardized this, a point scale was instituted ranging from 4 -1.

Then, the exploratory motor task was a blind-folded task. The subjects had a certain number of objects put on a board. They were not instructed as to how many objects there actually were. Once they believed they were done, they had to say “finished.”

And finally, the “subjects were presented with 3 objects, on at a time: (1) comb; (2) razor (for men), powder compact (for women); (3) spectacles.” Subjects were asked to show the instructors how each item was used. Scoring was on a scale from 0-3.

The results revealed that, “hemineglect is not a single entity and requires a range of tests to be used to maximize the possibility of identifying neglect disorder and to distinguish the selective impairments” (Bailey et al., 2000). This battery of tests paved the way for more precise treatment options and a better understanding of hemineglect and what exactly it affects (Bailey et al., 2000).

Treatment: Optokinetic Stimulation

A study was put together to show the potential of Optokinetic Stimulation (OKS). Ten participants with left-sided chronic neglect were given a batter of tests. The neglect screening broke the ten participants into two groups of five each. The first group of five was to receive the OKS. The other group of five was used as a control group to compare the success of the treatment (Keller & Kerkhoff, 2006).

The participants were put through a series of tests which included cancellation tests, reading tests, and line bisection. During the cancellation test, participants were instructed to use a pen to cancel out numbers “1” and “9” from a total of 200 numbers ranging from 0-9. Then, the reading test was screening for neglect dyslexia. The patients were asked to read 55 words. The text was located in the center of a monitor at a distance of 0.4 m. The test giver was looking for words that were left out and if the patient substituted all or part of certain words. And finally, the last task was line bisection where they were instructed to put a mark where they thought the line’s middle is located (Keller & Kerkhoff, 2006).

Next, OKS was administered to the first group of five participants. Thirty to seventy dots appeared on a 17” screen. The dots kept moving slowly more and more to the left. No movement of their head was allowed. Speed of the dots was constantly varied depending on the attention span of the patients. The participants completed the OKS exercise four times each session with ten minute breaks (Keller & Kerkhoff, 2006).

Then, the second group of five, which was the control group, was given the same OKS treatment only the dots that were on the screen remained still instead of moving to the left. They were also given this exercise four times a session with ten minute breaks (Keller & Kerkhoff, 2006).

According to Keller and Kerkhoff, OKS directs “attention towards neglected regions of space. This improved attention allocation lead to subsequent improvements in all visual neglect tasks requiring systematic leftward exploration, as in cancellation, reading, size comparisons or line bisection” With the limited amount of resources available to treat

Treatment: Virtual Reality (VR)

Developed by the Kaiser Rehabilitation Center, a Virtual Reality system assesses the severity of Left Hemineglect Syndrome and offers possible treatment with their new technology design. The Virtual Reality uses a tracking and cueing program which gauges the individual’s responses within the VR environment. The new Virtual Reality innovation offers “accurate and consistent assessment, therapy, and outcome measurements.” The Virtual Reality simulation is made up of a three room home and a backyard. Kaiser’s Virtual Reality Tracking and Cueing Program (VRTC) “measures (1) maximum angle of head rotation to the left and to the right; (2) the time to maximal angle in each direction (3) in the case of a patient who ignores the left hemifield, the number of cues the patient requires to turn to the left” (Bierig & Meyers, 2000). Beirig and Meyers states that “Because this technology is computer-based, the interactions can be accurately qualified (Bierig & Meyers, 2000).

While many neglect patients can not recover enough to fully continue an independent lifestyle nor go back to their previous vocation (Keller & Kerkhoff, 2006), The Kaiser Rehabilitation Center offers promising treatment for Left Hemineglect Syndrome patients. It offers “the ability to immerse the patient in a carefully planned and controlled environment, the ability to quantify responses in a bias-free manner, the ability to track and measure head movement and the opportunity to use the cueing capabilities of the VRTC program as a therapeutic adjunct” (Beirig & Meyers, 2000).

Feminine Psychology: Hysteria

noreply@blogger.com (Jessica M. Stratton) — Tue, 01 Apr 2008 04:03:00 +0000

Feminine Psychology emphasizes the role of environmental and cultural factors in the development of neurosis. In her view, men and women were equal outside of the cultural limitations often placed on being female. Karen Horney, that biologically women and men were equal.

Male psychologists believed that women were inferior. The concept of hysteria emphasizes that males viewed women as weak, inferior, and susceptible to insanity. Hysteria is the concept of the “wandering uterus.” Male doctors believed that women who had paralysis in their arms or legs were the cause of the uterus disconnecting itself and moving around the body. Women were treated as inferior because they were susceptible to womb wandering.

However, that concept changed in a positive way for women psychologists like Karen Horney when “womb wandering” appeared in men who were in combat. To be less disgraceful, men who suffered from hysteria were said to be suffering from “shell shock.”

Horney also believed that Anatomy is not Destiny. Contrary to Sigmund Freud, the Oedipal Complex does not apply to most men and to no women. Penis envy, to her, was not really envying the penis in its literal sense, but envying men’s social status and role. She believes that there is something wrong with society and not women.
Misdiagnosis of women happens a lot in our society. Women today, even though we are supposedly equal, still get stereotyped. A woman is more likely to be diagnosed with depression than males. While this is a fact, there is another factor that is not taken into consideration. For women, it is okay to visit a therapist and seek help. Women talk and therapy is “the talking cure.” It is socially acceptable for women to express their emotions and feelings and seek support from others. For males on the other hand, they are supposed to not be emotional or expressive. They are manly, and don’t cry, and think emotions are women’s business. Males, even when depressed, do not seek help as often as females. Females have a greater chance of misdiagnosis because they express sadness, but not necessarily are always clinically depressed.

Carl Jung: The Collective Unconscious

noreply@blogger.com (Jessica M. Stratton) — Tue, 01 Apr 2008 04:00:00 +0000

Analytic Psychology was started by Carl Jung. His theory focuses on the personal experience and the forces and motivations of underlying human behavior. Jung’s Analytic Psychology deals the unconscious, the collective unconscious, and archetypes.

The collective unconscious is common experiences that connects everyone. According to Carl Jung, each person not only has their own unique unconscious mind, but also shares some elements of unconsciousness with all other people. He called this shared unconscious: the collective unconscious. Jung also suggested that there are archetypes (images and memories of important human experiences) that are passed down from generation to generation. These archetypes can be common designs, shapes, colors, and figures seen over and over again throughout time.
While Freud did not distinguish between an "individual psychology" and a "collective psychology," Jung distinguished the collective unconscious from the personal unconscious particular to each human being.

And no other theory has developed archetypes. Archetypes are defined as an inherited pattern of thought or symbolic imagery derived from the past collective experience and present in the individual unconscious. Basically, archetypes are different models of stereotype of characteristics that every single person can identify with by having someone in their life represent that specific archetype. Some examples are the shadow, the self, the anima or the animus, the great mother, and the old wise man.

Karen Horney: Feminine Psychology

noreply@blogger.com (Jessica M. Stratton) — Tue, 01 Apr 2008 03:56:00 +0000

Karen Horney brought about Feminine Psychology. She disagreed with Freud’s view of women. She countered Freud's concept of penis envy with what she called Womb Envy, or man's envy of woman's ability to bear children. She argued that men compensate for this inability by striving for achievement and success in other realms.

Horney was also known for her study of neurotic personality. She defined neurosis as a maladaptive and counterproductive way of dealing with relationships. These people are unhappy and desperately seek out relationships in order to feel good abut themselves. Their way of securing these relationships include projections of their own insecurity and neediness which eventually drives others away.

Horney also developed three Neurotic Coping Strategies. Her first neurotic coping strategy is Moving Towards people. These people are compliantly neurotic. Some children who feel a great deal of anxiety and helplessness move toward people in order to seek help and acceptance. They are striving to feel worthy and can believe the only way to gain this is through the acceptance of others. These people have an intense need to be liked, involved, important, and appreciated. So much so, that they will often fall in love quickly or feel an artificial but very strong attachment to people they may not know well. Their attempts to make that person love them creates a clinginess and neediness that much more often than not results in the other person leaving the relationship. Their neurotic solution is “If everyone likes me, then no one will want to hurt me.” Or one could be Moving Against people. These people are power hungry and crave social recognition and prestige. Another way to deal with insecurities and anxiety is to try to force your power onto others in hopes of feeling good about yourself. Those with this personality style come across as bossy, demanding, selfish, and even cruel. Horney argued that these people project their own hostilities (which she called externalization) onto others and therefore use this as a justification to 'get them before they get me. Once again, relationships appear doomed from the beginning. Their neurotic solution is, “If I have power over everyone, than no one can hurt me.” And finally one could be Moving Away from people. This type of people likes independence and Isolation. The final possible consequence of a neurotic household is a personality style filled with asocial behavior and almost an indifference to others. If they don't get involved with others, they can't be hurt by them. While it protects them from emotional pain of relationships, it also keeps away all positive aspects of relationships. It leaves them feeling alone and empty. Their neurotic solution is, “If I don’t let anyone close to me than no one can hurt me."

Alfred Adler: Birthing Order & Fictional Finalism

noreply@blogger.com (Jessica M. Stratton) — Tue, 01 Apr 2008 03:55:00 +0000

Alfred Adler’s theory of Individual Psychology focuses on the social side of life. Alfred’s theory deals with the three Universal Tasks that he believes are familiar to everyone in every society. (1) The occupational task which excludes choosing a vocation which is useful to society. (2) Social tasks are next which include choosing a niche in society. And lastly (3) love tasks.

Adler’s theory differentiates between the concepts of striving for superiority and striving for success. According to Adler, Striving for Success (striving for one’s own personal achievement) is healthy. However, Striving for Superiority (striving to be better than others and measure your own success by comparing yourself to others) is neurotic. Adler also states that the more social interest one has the healthier they are and that friendship is not quantitative but qualitative. Social Interest is supposedly innate and moms and dads develop the skills for socialization.
An Inferiority Complex is the idea that a feeling of organ inferiority early in life can lead to feelings of intellect inferiority and can even lead people to compensate (in mostly negative ways) for feelings of inferiority.

Fictional Finalism (1) stands at the center of my existence, (2) is fictional, and (3) helps us to navigate the obstacles of existence. When I was younger, I wanted to be a model and an actress. I am fulfilling my Fictional Finalism by becoming a teacher because I get to be watched and show my personality to an audience!
Alder also touched up Life Styles (how you gain success or superiority) is determined by (1) Fictional Finalism and (2) the environment I was raised in.

Alder, however, is most known for his work with Family Constellations and how they affect lifestyle. Birth Order is a major factor in the behavior of the individual. The Only Child birth is a miracle. Parents have no previous experience. Only children love being the center of adult attention. However, they often have difficulty sharing with peers. Only children prefer adult company and uses adult language. They like attention from both parents. They are usually over-protected and spoiled. The Youngest Child has many “mothers” and “fathers.” Older children try to educate them. The youngest child is never dethroned. Many youngest children have huge plans that never work out. They have the privilege of always being the "baby" of the family. Youngest children, like the only child are frequently spoiled as well. Then, sandwiched is the Middle Child. The Middle child may feel shafted out of a position of privilege and significance. They are usually even-tempered with a "take it or leave it" manner. However, they may have trouble finding a place or even become a fighter of unfairness. The Oldest Child is usually dethroned by next child born. The oldest has to learn to share everything. Parent expectations are usually very high for their first born. They are often given greater responsibility than their siblings and are most-likely expected to set a good example. Also, the oldest child is more likely to have a successful marriage. And, in the case of Twins, one is usually stronger or more active. Parents may tend to see the more mature one as older. Twins sometimes can suffer from identity problems.

Sigmund Freud: Defense Mechanisms

noreply@blogger.com (Jessica M. Stratton) — Tue, 01 Apr 2008 03:49:00 +0000

Pioneered by neurologist Sigmund Freud, Psychoanalysis is a method of psychological therapy in which “the talking cure” (having cathartic release through emotion in words). Major contributions of Freud include free association (freely talking about what ever comes to mind), dream interpretation (what the underlying meaning of dreams is), psychosexual stages, the unconscious (what we are not aware of), defense mechanisms, psychic structures (i.e. id, ego, and superego).

According to Freud, humans have three main components to their personality. The id, ego, and superego cause us to behave the way we do and make us who we are. The id ego and superego are like an iceberg; the ego sits at the top of the iceberg half in the conscious and half in the preconscious. The superego is barely conscious and mostly preconscious and the id is completely unconscious.

The first component is the Id. The id is guided by the pleasure principal and is the part of the human personality that is made up of inborn biological urges. The id seeks immediate gratification; it wants everything and it wants it now. The Id is like a new born baby; when it is hungry it wants to be fed that second; when it needs to be changed, it screams until it gets changed right away.

The Ego is the part of personality that helps us deal with reality by having the ego mediate between the id and the superego. The ego prevents us from acting on every urge we have (produced by the id) and being so morally driven that we can't function properly. The ego works according to the reality principle which helps us direct our unacceptable sexual and aggressive urges to more acceptable targets. The ego is like a person with a devil and an angel sitting on their shoulder. The id is telling that he is hungry and should steal the pizza from the guy sitting next to him. The superego is telling the ego that stealing is wrong and that he should starve to death before committing a sin. The ego has to deal with both urges from the id and superego and possibly decide to delay immediate gratification to the id and somewhat please the superego by traveling to a restaurant and purchasing a piece of pizza.

The Superego acts as our moral guide and mediates between the id and the ego. The superego contains the conscience, which makes us feel guilty for doing or thinking something wrong and good when we do something right. It tells us that we feel good when we hold a door open for a lady at Harper that has a back pack that rolls and that it is bad to kick it over as revenge when it almost trips us!

Freud believed there to be five stages of Psychosexual Development: Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latent and Genital. At each of these stages, pleasure is focused on a particular part of the body.

First, The Oral Stage is the psychosexual stage of development where pleasure is centered in and around the mouth. The oral stage is the initial stage of development. This stage is when infants will be found putting anything into their mouth including toys and thumbs. Next, The Anal Stage is one of the stages in Freud’s psychosexual theory of development, which occurs in the second year of life. During this stage, the anus becomes the focus of sexual gratification. This occurs because the child finds sexual pleasure in the sensations that come with having or withholding bowel movements. Then, The Phallic Stage of development is where pleasure is centered around the genital region. The third stage of development and usually is between ages three and seven. It is this stage where the child learns that there is a difference between girls and boys. Then, The Latency Stage is the fourth stage and it occurs from about age five or six until puberty. During The Latency Stage, a child's sexual impulses are repressed. The reason for this is that during the stage before latency (phallic stage) the child resolves the Oedipus or Electra Complex which are such traumatic events that the child then repress all of his or her sexual impulses. Interestingly, because this stage contains little or no psychosexual development. And lastly, The Genital Stage is the final stage in Freud's theory of psychosexual development and begins in puberty. During this stage, the teenager has overcome latency, made associations with one gender or the other, and now seeks out pleasure through sexual contact with others. The sexual contact is now focused on the opposite sex of similar age; the pleasure is now through actual physical stimulation of the genitals by the opposite sex. Too much or too little pleasure in any one of these stages caused a fixation which would lead to personality or psychological disorders.
When anxiety materializes, the mind first behaves by a surge in problem-solving thinking, searching for rational ways of eluding the situation. When / if this is not
beneficial, an assortment of Defense Mechanisms may be triggered.

Displacement whereby the mind redirects affect from an object felt to be dangerous to an object felt to be safe. For instance, if my boss yells at me at work, I will not punch him…instead I will displace my anger into something less dangerous like kicking my dog Zoey or punching a pillow.

Projection is one of the defense mechanisms identified by Freud and still acknowledged today. According to Freud, projection is when someone is threatened by or afraid of their own impulses so they attribute these impulses to someone else. Great example: my boyfriend Daniel is laziest person I know. He waits until the day before an exam to start studying, he scrambles at the last minute to get his homework done for Western History, and he is so unorganized, that even if he does complete his homework, he is lucky to find it and hand it in on time. Now, Daniel is not as bad as I am at procrastinating and organization but I always point out his flaws instead of my own.

Rationalization is a defense mechanism identified by Freud. According to Freud when people are not able to deal with the reasons they behave in particular ways, they protect themselves by creating self-justifying explanations for their behaviors. For instance, I know I forgot to call Sadie, but I only didn’t call because I thought she didn’t want me too…that is why I forgot.

Reaction Formation A defense mechanism where an individual acts in a manner opposite from his or her unconscious beliefs. If I was raised believing that homosexuality is wrong and one day I am walking and considering what it would be like to be homosexual I would find it repulsive and believe that gays should be shot.

Regression is another one of the defense mechanisms identified by Freud. According to Freud there are times when people are faced with situations that are so anxiety provoking that they can't deal with it and they protect themselves by retreating to an earlier stage of development. For example, if I am told by my mom to clean my room and I have had a bad day at school and I feel cleaning my room will evoke anxiety because I might stumble across more homework that I haven’t done even though I know I am behind in my work…I regress to how I behaved when I was little and told to clean my room like having a tantrum or throwing my remote against the wall.
Repression is when memories, impulses, desires, and thoughts that are too difficult or unacceptable to deal with are unconsciously excluding them from our consciousness. If a child was sexually molested by her grandfather, the thought might be too much for her mind to handle at this point in her life, so the situation and memories are repressed into a part of the mind that is not accessible until she is at a point in her life that is stable and she is mature enough to handle the repressed memories.

We Are Worm Food: Victor Frankl

noreply@blogger.com (Jessica M. Stratton) — Tue, 01 Apr 2008 03:44:00 +0000

Victor Frankl invented Logotherapy. Logotherapy is “therapy through meaning.” By making misery meaningful, the healing process can begin. Logotherapy aids in meaning crises mainly with feelings of aimlessness. An example is if I was in a car crash and my best friend died, I might question why I she died and not me. By using Logotherapy, I might learn that I was sparing my friend the pain that I was feeling about her death. If I had died she would feel the same terribleness and sadness that I felt. Therefore, my sadness has meaning for good. Like Maslow, Frankl also believed that Self-Actualization…However, Frankl believed that Self-Actualization was a side affect when one discovered what their purpose in the world is.
The Triad of Concepts has three pillars like Zen Buddhism. The three pillars of Human Existence are (1) Freedom of Will; we are free to choose out psychological stance toward life, (2) Will toward meaning is our deepest motivation, and (3) Meaning of life is unique and specific to each individual. The three modes by which meaning is generated are (1) Creative: what one gives to the world, (2) Experiential: Experience that you take from the world and (3) Attitude. The Tragic Triad consists of (1) Guilt: How do we cope with our unavoidable and unchangeable past. (2) Pain: Body starts falling apart…Fear makes the pain intolerable and (3) Death: We are worm food.

Carl Rogers: Humanistic Psychology

noreply@blogger.com (Jessica M. Stratton) — Tue, 01 Apr 2008 03:38:00 +0000

Humanistic Psychologist Carl Rogers concocted the idea of a Phenomenal Field, which is the totality of an individual’s subjective experiences. Inside one’s Phenomenal Field are parents, pets, loved ones, friends, significant others, college memories, great achievements, and even select to day-to-day experiences. Inside my Phenomenal Field, one would find: my boyfriend Daniel, my mother and father, the yearbook award I won my senior year for being editor-in-chief, my plaque for 4 years of dedication to the Hersey Speech team, my Grandma Gretel, and my dogs Zoë and Sadie. Along with those memories are acceptance to Roosevelt, and admissions into the Honors Program and PTK. All those people, awards, and accomplishments are just a few of the things I pride myself in and would be found in my Phenomenal Field. The thought process behind Rogers’ method was, as a therapist, Rogers would have to become immersed within the client’s Phenomenal Field; put himself in their shoes so to say, and get their perspectives along with past experiences in order to fully comprehend their being.

Rogers later went on to coin the term self-concept. The self-concept is a conscious awareness of one’s personal identity; it is also a portion of the Phenomenal Field. The self-concept is the (1) value of one’s own personal experiences and (2) what is assimilated or taken over from another. An example of valuing my own personal experiences would be my love for public speaking which I did for 4 year on Speech Team and later realizing that I wanted to be a teacher and public speak the rest of my life (despite the fact my parents wanted me to be a doctor)! An example of taking something from another person is my friend Melissa; she is really into show tunes and therefore after being exposed to that particular type of music for so long, I began to like show tunes as well.

The most superlative difference that Rogers explored was the concept of congruence vs. incongruence. Rogers stated that the personality is like a triangle made up of the real self, the perceived self, and ideal self. According to Rogers, when there is a good fit between all three components, the person has congruence. This is a healthy state of being and helps people continue to progress toward self-actualization; having a self-concept and behavior that matches. Incongruence is having a self-concept and behavior that does not match. One maintains incongruence by (1) denial of experiences, (2) distortion of experiences, and (3) subception (or subliminal perception). Incongruence leads to anxiety; the greater the incongruence, the greater the anxiety. Rogers went on to list four basic needs, which determine whether one becomes congruent or incongruent. The 4 basic needs according to Rogers are (1) maintenance (food clothing, shelter), (2) enhancement (growth and development), (3) Unconditional Positive Regard, and (4) Positive Self Regard. If these four basic needs are met, a person will become congruent.

Now, numbers 1 and 2 of the four basic needs are simple enough. But, what exactly are Unconditional Positive Regard and Positive Self Regard? Unconditional Positive Regard is an if / then statement. An example is “if you do your homework, then I will love you.” Conditional Self Regard is Unconditional Positive Regards evil nemesis. A child brought up in a family that utilized Unconditional Positive Regard would hear such phrases as “I love you, however, I don’t love your actions.” The child would be taught that their behavior is bad and that they are loved. A congruent individual will age to be a fully functioning person. A fully functioning person has the characteristics of (1) openness to experience, (2) existential living, (3) creativity, and (4) genuineness, congruence, and authenticity. Genuineness is a person who shares intimated details willingly, is non-defensive, and is perceived as not playing a role or not a plastic person.

The therapeutic approach for Psychotherapy Rogers used was Client-Centered Therapy. Rogers did not entitle his therapy “Patient”-Centered Therapy because of the power difference. In Client-Centered Therapy, it is the responsibility of the client to figure out what is wrong and make the changes. With the word “patient” in the title, it alludes to the notion that the therapist has the power and authority to “fix” the broken patient. Rogers employed three conditions that were necessary for therapeutic change. His three conditions were (1) empathy / empathetic listening, (2) acceptance (UPR), and (3) authenticity (the therapist must be almost congruent).

Rogers’ theory also taught me who I want to be: not my parents. When I bring a child into this world, I do not want to love them only if they clean their room, or only if they get the grades, or only if they have friends that I approve of. I want to love them because they are. I want to give my children Unconditional Positive Regard and not leave them to find Positive Self Regard on their own after years of feeling worthless. I want to teach them the difference between hating them and hating their behaviors.

Practical Play Mates: Toys for the Developing Child

noreply@blogger.com (Jessica M. Stratton) — Tue, 01 Apr 2008 03:33:00 +0000

Simple reflexes occur in babies from 0-2 months of age and focuses on activities such as grasping and sucking. A toy that is well suited to stimulate the Simple Reflexes stage is Baby Gymtastics 3-in-1 Rockin' Gym by Fisher Price costing $49.99. Baby Gymtastics 3-in-1 Rockin’ Gym is a floor gym, a musical rocker, and take-along musical fun - all in one! Overhead gym plays music to an entertaining light show, with movable toys to reach and bat. This product easily converts to a ride-on rocker, rewarding movement with lively, energetic music with dancing lights. A parent can create an assortment of active and entertaining adventures. This toy is versatile and can change and be rearranged in a way that's just right for your baby's stage of physical development, keeping the play fresh and exciting every time!

First habits and Primary Circular Reactions occur from 2-4 months and reflexive behaviors transpire in stereotyped repetition such as opening and closing fingers repetitively. For $19.99, I found a baby hoops game that magically rewards babies for ball-drop play. For the sitting baby the hoop sways on a roly-poly base. As baby tosses one of the 3 soft balls through the hoop, 1 of 3 lively tunes plays while the 2 colored lights dance. The balls swirl around in the base. For the crawling or walking baby, the base flips over to allow the balls to roll free following each "score," encouraging baby to crawl. Built-in activities include a twirling cheetah character on one arm and 2 roller beads on the other.

Secondary Circular Reactions ranges from 4-8 months of age. T.M.X." Elmo will tickle America's funny bone with three interactive tickle spots on his chin, tummy and toe. When kids tickle Elmo once on any of the tickle spots, he starts to laugh and slap his leg twice, then falls down into a sitting position and rocks himself back up to standing while laughing. When they tickle him a second time, he repeats the pattern even more, then sits down again and falls backwards onto his back and starts kicking his feet while laughing even harder. He then stands back up and asks to be tickled again. And on the third tickle he absolutely lets loose going through the first two patterns and then rolling over onto his tummy where he starts hitting the floor with his hand in gales of laughter, then rolling onto his back, standing up again, and ending with a deep sigh.

Coordination of Secondary Reactions lasts from 8-12 months of age Sale $21.95 instead of $24.95. The toy that I believe suites this developmental stage is Peek A Boo! Monkey Jack in a Box. This unique Jack in the Box features a colorful monkey who has a special surprise! Magnets in his hands allow him to play Peek-a-boo with you.
Tertiary Circular Reactions novelty and curiosity ranges from 12-18 months of age. This Unit Blocks 45 Piece Set is $74.99. Our European quality unit blocks are made to resist dents and dings. You'll notice the difference. Our blocks are finely sanded and rounded to eliminate any sharp edges, and are splinter-free to protect tender young hands. All our blocks are guaranteed for life.

Internalization of schemes lasts from about 18-24 months of age. Adults and children can create a read-along Sesame Street® book with your child as the star! Nothing will engage your toddler or preschooler more in letter, name or word recognition than this Sesame and Me story where your child appears alongside his or her favorite Sesame Street® characters!

Hospice Care

noreply@blogger.com (Jessica M. Stratton) — Mon, 31 Mar 2008 22:09:00 +0000

A hospice is a facility where patients go if their illness is terminal. A person opts to go to a hospice to make the transition to death more easily. The staff at a hospice assists the patient’s passing by making its goals for the patient to be as free of pain as possible, as small amount of anxiety as they can, and try to make it free of depression. They want this experience to be as comfortable an experience as it can be. Hospices are not there to treat a person or try to cure them but to help them pass on.

Americans: Avoidence and Denying Death

noreply@blogger.com (Jessica M. Stratton) — Mon, 31 Mar 2008 22:08:00 +0000

Americans avoid death and dying because of its vagueness. No one really knows what happens after we pass on, but there are theories about what happens to the soul when the body is not longer living. Most of the time, when a close loved one dies, the first reaction is to move on with life. But what one doesn’t realize is the pain of the lost love one never really goes away. One has to learn to deal with the absence and continue on. In some cultures, they respect the dead more than we do and instead of burring them in a cemetery (which American and Europeans consider to be a freighting place because for the most part we are scared of the dead and their spirits), some cultures bury the close to their homes and in their back yards. Other, on special occasions, because they believe the dead still partake in the happenings of the living will set a place at the table for them for special occasions like weddings or celebrations.

Peck: Three Developmental Tasks for Older Adults

noreply@blogger.com (Jessica M. Stratton) — Mon, 31 Mar 2008 22:08:00 +0000

Pecks three developmental tasks for older adults are (1) differentiation versus role preoccupation, (2) body transcendence verses preoccupation, and (3) ego transcendence versus ego preoccupation. Differentiation versus role preoccupation deals with retirement. Older adults must redefine their worth in terms other than work roles. Most define themselves by their occupations. I am going to be a teacher so when people ask about myself I would be very proud of all the schooling I endured, the degrees I earned, and the employment of being a teacher. What Peck is saying is that once retirement sets in one has to find a new way of defining themselves like “I am a mother of two,” “I am a wife,” “I am the greatest grandmother alive!” Then body transcendence verses preoccupation deals with the fact that older adults must cope with declining physical well-being. One has to realize that if you were an Olympic gymnast, a cross country runner, or even a bowler, that as you age you aren’t able to do the same activities as you could in earlier life. One might have to take up swimming if gymnastics is too stressful on their bones. And finally, ego transcendence versus ego preoccupation is the concept that death is inevitable. Then one must assess what they have contributed to the future through vocation, children, and ideas and look at it in a positive way. They might look at it as “life wasn’t meaningless; I married I raised 3 beautiful children who have grandchildren and I made that possible and my memory and love will live on in them and they will have ideas and ways to change the world themselves.”

Secular & Psychological Needs Met by Religion

noreply@blogger.com (Jessica M. Stratton) — Mon, 31 Mar 2008 22:07:00 +0000

The psychological needs and secular needs met by religion are that having something to believe in makes the concept of life less anxiety-filled. Believing that there is a part of you that lives on after death eases the mind. On a social level, religion brings us closer together giving us a commonality. No matter what our sect is…whether we are monotheistic, polytheistic, or agnostic…we have a commonality that we believe in something greater than us and beyond this world that is unexplainable.

The “Big Five” Personality Traits

noreply@blogger.com (Jessica M. Stratton) — Mon, 31 Mar 2008 22:06:00 +0000

The Big Five are (1) openness to experience, (2) conscientiousness, (3) extraversion, (3) agreeableness (5) emotional stability. These 5 also know as the acronym OCEAN are described as important factors of personality. The results were that social dominance increased from adolescence through middle adulthood which social vitality increased in adolescences and then decreased in early and late adulthood. Agreeableness and conscientiousness increase in early and middle adulthood. Neuroticism decreased in early adulthood and openness-to-experiences increased in adolescence and early adulthood and then decreased in late adulthood.

Microbiological and Macrobiological Theories of Aging

noreply@blogger.com (Jessica M. Stratton) — Mon, 31 Mar 2008 22:05:00 +0000

Microbiological and macrobiological theories of aging include (1) hormonal stress theory, (2) mitochondrial theory, (3) free radial theory, (4) cellular clock theory. The hormonal stress theory is the theory that aging in the body’s hormonal system can lower resilience to stress and increase the likely-hood of diseases. The mitochondrial theory is the theory that aging is cause by the decay of mitochondria which are tiny cellular bodies that supply energy for growth and repair. Thirdly is the free radial theory which is a microbiological theory of aging that states that people age because inside their cells normal metabolism produces unstable oxygen molecules known as free radicals. These molecules ricochet around inside cells damaging DNA and other cellular structures. And finally the cellular clock theory which was founded by Leonard Hayflick states that the maximum number of times that human cells can divide is about 75 to 80 times, and as we age, our cells have less capability to divide.