The Psychological and Physical Effects of Smoking Tobacco Cigarettes

Abstract
Tobacco smoking can potentially be a death sentence when continued over a long period of time. There are numerous devastating physical and psychological effects from smoking cigarettes. Some of the more well known effects are lung cancer, esophageal cancer, and depression. However, there are other effects not well known like the effects of second hand smoke in pregnancy and in relationship to pets. There is also a great deal of minor effects like confusion in the older population, possible development of diabetes, and could potentially put one at more risk for developing pneumonia.


The Psychological and Physical Effects of Smoking Tobacco Cigarettes


Directly following the Civil War in the United States, more time and money was devoted to the manufacturing of cigarettes (Fanny & Vera, 2009). Since then, tobacco smoking has become a widely accepted social behavior (Baldauf, 2008). In the mid 1900s, research was conducted to show the devastating psychological and physical effects of tobacco cigarette smoking. Despite this research, according to the National Institute on drug Abuse, “between 1964 and 2004, cigarette smoking caused an estimated 12 million deaths, including 4.1 million deaths from cancer, and 5.5 million deaths from cardiovascular disease” (2009). Furthermore, according to the American Heart Association, in the United States alone “an estimated 26.2 million men and 20.9 million women are smokers” (2009). In order to understand why billions of people around the world continue to smoke, even though it is common knowledge how devastating cigarette smoking is, one has to take a more in depth look at the psychological and physical effects of smoking tobacco cigarettes within and outside the United States.

A broad article on smoking entitled A Profile of Tobacco Smoking by Martin Jarvis gave a general overview of physical and psychological dependence in regards to smoking tobacco. Jarvis’ research was conducted in London and states that,
smoking is strongly linked to a variety of other life-style indicators. It is associated with alcohol consumption and with caffeine intake, and is particularly common among patients with depressive illnesses and schizophrenia (1994).

When looking at further patterns of smoking, Jarvis goes on to note that in London male smokers smoke on average 17 cigarettes per day and females 14 per day (1994); Jarvis continues in saying that most smokers admit that they would like to give the habit up. Jarvis states, in a recent survey of British adults, 58% of cigarette smokers said that they wanted to give up smoking altogether, but of those who wanted to give [it] up only 13% percent thought that if they decided to give up [smoking] during the next 2 months, they would be very likely to succeed (1994).

Jarvis also speculates that when looking at the statistics for those who cease smoking, that most of those who claimed that they would be able to stop in the next two months would in fact not be able to. This is curious because “nicotine does not lead to intoxication and euphoriant effects are almost entirely absent” (Jarvis, 1994). Yet, “patients seeking treatment for heroin, cocaine[,] and alcohol rate cigarette smoking as at least as hard to give up as their problem drug, but significantly less enjoyable” (Jarvis, 1994). Smoking causes significant levels of dependence in the smoker and turns into a compulsive habit physically, and psychologically it calms the smoker down despite that nicotine is a stimulant. Jarvis goes on to conclude that a large number of people “in the developed world” (Jarvis, 1994) continue to smoke despite “the overwhelming evidence that [tobacco smoking] constitutes the single biggest cause of premature death” (Jarvis, 1994).
Moving on from London to Canada, Salma Khaled and her associates conducted research on depression and cigarette smoking in an article entitled Cigarette Smoking, Stages of Change, and Major Depression in the Canadian Population. Since the early 1980s, associations of cigarette smoking with depressed mood and major depression have been reported among psychiatric patients, smoking cessation patients, twin samples, and general population samples” (Johnson & Breslau 2004). Khaled’s research is the first to examine the Canadian population in regards to seeing if smoking and depression are correlated. Starting in January 2002 until December 2003, Khaled and her colleagues utilized a “cross-sectional household survey conducted by Statistics Canada” and 49,249 responded (Khaled, Bulloch, Exner, Patten, 2009). The results showed that there was an “elevated prevalence of major depression […] in current smokers at 10.6%” (Khaled, Bulloch, Exner, Patten, 2009). Furthermore with those that used to smoke, it was less at 5.3%, and those that had never smoked came in at 3.9% (Khaled, Bulloch, Exner, Patten, 2009). Khaled concluded that there is definite significance in the rate of depression in those that smoke versus those that have never smoked. She also believes that more research should be done on this topic. Also, avenues to help current smokers quit smoking should take the depression component into consideration and have some type of depression support while attempting to quit (Khaled, Bulloch, Exner, Patten, 2009).

There is also a hypothesized connection between obesity and smoking. The next article Association of Smoking in Adolescence with Abdominal Obesity in Adulthood: A Follow-Up Study of 5 Birth Cohorts of Finnish Twins, Suoma Sarni and associates examine the correlation between smoking and obesity. Sarni and her colleagues used a longitudinal study with her population being “5 consecutive and complete birth cohorts of Finnish twins born in 1975 to 1979” (2009). After extensive research, Sarni and her team concluded that there is a correlation between tobacco smoking in adolescence and obesity in adulthood. It was found that “both abdominal obesity and smoking are major risk factor for metabolic dysfunction and cardiovascular disease” (Saarni, Pietilainen, Kantonen, Rissanen, Kaprio, 2009). And furthermore, “the life expectancy of obese smokers can be reduced by as much as 13 years” and that more research should be done on this topic because there is little in the field (Saarni, Pietilainen, Kantonen, Rissanen, Kaprio, 2009).

While the physical effects of tobacco smoking can be direct, which has been shown in the past few articles, there is also physical effects when a mother smokes while being pregnant. According to North Carolina’s Smoking Gain? Secondhand Smoke Exposure Influences Body Weight, Lipid Profiles in Offspring by Victoria McGovern about “780,000 U.S. women continue smoking throughout pregnancy each year despite warnings about the elevated risk of birth defects” (2009). A mouse study was conducted and provides new evidence that even exposure to second hand smoke during pregnancy could “lead to weight gain in offspring as well as changes in lipid profiles that may increase the chances of cardiovascular disease later in life” (McGovern, 2009). There was, however, a noted difference between male and female pups. Female pups were exposed to cigarette smoke a total of “4 hours a day, 5 days a week, throughout pregnancy” (McGovern, 2009) and were found to have “significant increases in HLD, LDL, and total protein” (McGovern, 2009). However, these finding were not observed when the adult female offspring were fed high-fat diets. However, “smoke-exposed male pups gained more weight and displayed altered lipid profiles compared with their sex-match unexposed counterparts when they were fed a high-fat diet but showed little evidence of an effect of smoke exposure when fed a normal diet” (McGovern, 2009). In conclusion, second hand smoke or directly smoking while pregnant can have a significant effect on the offspring of mothers that smoke during pregnancy.

Second-hand smoke hurts more than just fetuses; second hand smoke also has been shown to have devastating effects on pets. In the 2009 article, Knowledge of Risk Could Make Pet Owners Stop Smoking, Milberger states that “exposure to cigarette smoke is linked to lymphoma in cats and lung cancer in dogs” (Milberger et al, 2009) and it was hypothesized that by raising the awareness of pet owners to what they are doing to their pets may cause them to want to quit smoking. A web survey was created to investigate pet owners and of the 3,293 that responded, “that 21 percent were smokers and 27 percent lived with smokers” (Milberger et al, 2009). It was concluded that of the pet owners who responded to the survey, that “information on the dangers of pets’ exposure to smoke would motivate them to quit” (Milberger et al, 2009) in 28.4 percent of the people surveyed; it was also found that 8.7 percent of those who lived with a smoker would ask their roommate to quit, and 14.2 percent would refrain from smoking at home as not to endanger the pets in the household (Milberger et al, 2009). There are indeed physical effects that not only affect the smoker, but endanger their pets as well.

While there have been a great deal of pessimistic speculations and studies conducted to show the negative effects of tobacco smoking, it has also been found that “for smokers, nicotine has a positive effect on attention, cognition[,] and mood” (Ghatan et al., 1997) which could be a reason that depressed individuals turn to cigarette smoking to cope with day-to-day life. However, the benefits in no way compare to the devastating effects. The lethal combination of tar, nicotine, and carbon monoxide found in cigarettes eventually, if smoked for years, can lead to lung cancer, cardiovascular disease, emphysema, high blood pressure, COPD (Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disorder), bladder cancer, esophageal cancer, kidney cancer, pancreatic cancer, and cervical cancer (Petrie, 2005). Remember that cigarette smoking is the main cause of preventable death within the United States and Smoking “could kill more than a billion people this century, according to the World Health Organization” (Lyon, n.d.). To put it in perspective, the death toll would equal “the number who would die if the Titanic sank every 24 minutes for the next 100 years” (Lyon, n.d.).

Next, in Sexually Dimorphic Effect of an Acute Smoking Manipulation on Skin Resistance But Not on Heart-Rate During a Cognitive Verbal Task, “in a two day, two session experiment” (Furedy, Algan, Vincent, Demirgoren, Pogun, 2001) Furedy hypothesizes that there is a difference in the physical effects of smoking depending on if one is a male or female. The study began with males and females between the ages of 18 to 22 being divided into four groups: (a) male non-smokers (n=5), (b) male smokers (n=6), (c) female non-smokers (n=12), and (d) female smokers (n=8) (Furedy, Algan, Vincent, Demirgoren, Pogun, 2001). The smokers on average smoked at least 10 cigarettes per day. Then 10 hours prior to their initial testing, participants were instructed not to smoke and furthermore not to consume other stimulants like coffee or tea. The four groups were then administered a cognitive verbal test and a cognitive spatial task. In between the test/task, participants were allowed a fifteen minute break, in which smokers were permitted to smoke a cigarette and non-smokers were placed in a room to relax. It was shown that during the test/task with the 15 minute break for smoking, that the smoking period produced arousal in females and conversely produced relaxation in males. Furdey concluded that this type of research is very important “in making distinctions among psychological, introspective-psychological, and objective-psychological variables” (Furedy, Algan, Vincent, Demirgoren, Pogun, 2001). There is a distinct difference in how tobacco smoking physically effects males and females.

Currently, cigarettes “contain more than 4000 chemical compounds and at least 400 toxic substances” (Quitsmokingsupport.com, n.d.)--and while the physical effects have more clear-cut correlations when examining “the number of cigarettes smoked, whether the cigarette has a filter, and how the tobacco has been prepared” (Kennedy, n.d.), the psychological effects of cigarette smoking are more elusive and have not been studied as in-depth. Rodhe and his associates randomly selected 1,709 participants from nine high schools in Western Oregon and conducted a longitudinal study that spanned from 1987 until 1999 (2002). The study showed a great deal of results including demographics (including low parental education), familial smoking, and familial psychopathology; however, the results that were most concerning and relevant to psychological effects was the category of lifetime psychopathology. According to Rohde, those who smoke are more likely to develop “Major Depressive Disorder (MDD), Alcohol [use], Drug [use], ADHD/DIS, and the antisocial personality disorder (Rohde, Kahler, Lewinsohn, Brown, 2002). Therefore, there is a correlation to smoking and serious psychological effects.

Along with the more obvious and previously mentioned physical effects like cancer and psychological effects like depression, there are also not-as-obvious psychological and physical effects. According to research, smoking may cloud the mind, bring on diabetes, and cause increased amounts of infection.
A [...] study in the Archives of Internal Medicine found that smoking in middle age is linked to memory problems and to a slide in reasoning abilities, though these risks appeared lessened for those who'd long quit; this is important, the authors wrote, because other research has shown that people with mild cognitive impairment in midlife develop dementia at an accelerated rate (Lyon, n.d.).

Next, smoking can also increase one’s risk for Type II diabetes. The Journal of the American Medical Association “found that across 25 prior studies, current smokers have a 44 percent greater chance of developing type 2 diabetes (Lyon, n.d.). And finally the federal Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices found “very strong data showing that the risk of infection by pneumonia-causing bacteria is substantially greater for smokers than for nonsmokers” (Lyon, n.d.).

In conclusion, there are numerous devastating physical and psychological effects to smoking tobacco cigarettes. According to Health.com, “between 1997 and 2001, smoking was responsible for $167 billion in annual health-care costs and lost productivity in the U.S. alone” (Health.com, 2009). While there are still studies being conducted and findings being disputed, one thing can be sure: tobacco smoking can be lethal. Fortunately, in recent years, the popularity of cigarette smoking has decreased. At this time, there are “more former smokers than current smokers in the United States” (Brannon & Feist, 2010); this recent decrease is due to new laws about where smoking can take place, recent ads promoting that smoking is “un-cool” to adolescents, and campaigns to show the detrimental effects of smoking (Media Release, 2003). As more information is broadcast to the general public about the physical and psychological effects of smoking, we can only hope to see a larger reduction of cigarette smoking in the near future.


References

American Heart Association (2009). Cigarette Smoking Statistics. Retrieved from
http://www.americanheart.org/presenter.jhtml?identifier=4559

Baldauf, S. (2008). Stop Smoking: Secrets of Successful Quitters. Retrieved from
http://health.usnews.com/articles/health/living-well-usn/2008/12/16/stop-smoking-secrets-of-successful-quitters.html.

Brannon, L, & Feist, J. (2010). Health Psychology: An Introduction to Behavior and Health.
Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning.

Fanny & Vera. (2009) Tips for Tobacco Users: Tobacco Use During the Civil War. Retrieved
from http://www.shasta.com/suesgoodco/newcivilians/index.htm.

Furedy, J. Algan, O., Vincent, A., Demirgoren, S., Pogun, S. (2001). Sexually Dimorphic Effect
of an acute Smoking Manipulation on skin Resistance But not on Heart-Rate During a Cognitive Verbal Task. Integrative Physiological and Behavioral Science. 34(4), 219-226.

Ghatan et al. (1997). Cerebral Effects of Nicotine During Cognition in Smokers and Non-
Smokers. Psychopharmacology 136. Retrieved from http://search.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.roosevelt.edu:2048/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=4694640&loginpage=Login.asp&site=ehost-live

Health.com (2009). How Much Money Are You Spending on Cigarettes? Retrieved from
http://www.health.com/health/condition-article/0,,20209268,00.html

Jarvis, M. J. (1994). A Profile of Tobacco Smoking. Addiction 89. Retrieved from
http://web.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.roosevelt.edu:2048/ehost/folder?vid=4&hid=2&sid=3a
f6bd1d-91d7-468d-aef1-fd3a90448e47%40sessionmgr10

Johnson, E. & Breslau N. (2004) Is the Association of smoking and depression a recent
phenomenon? Society for Nicotine and Tobacco. 8(2), 257-262.

Khaled, S. M., Bullovh, A., Exner, D.V, Patten, S.B. (2009). Cigarrette Smoking, Stages of
Change and Major Depression in the Canadian Population. Journal of La Revue Canadienne de Psychiatrie, 54(3), 204-208.

Kennedy, R (n.d.) Smoking Risks. Retrieved from http://www.medical
library.net/content/view/530/41/

Lyon, L. (n.d.) 12 Reasons to Really Quit Smoking. Retrieved from
http://health.usnews.com/articles/health/cancer/2008/11/14/12-reasons-to-really-quit-smoking.html?s_cid=related-links:TOP

Petrie, G. (2005). Smoking-Health Risks. Retrieved from
http://www.netdoctor.co.uk/health_advice/facts/smokehealth.htm

Rohde, P., Kahler C., Lewinsohn P., Brown, R. (2002). Psychiatric Disorders, Familial Factors,
and Cigarette Smoking: II. Associations with Progression to Daily Smoking. Society for Research on Nicotine and Tobacco. 6(1) 119-132.
Media Release (2003). Gory Anti-Smoking Ads Encourage Kids to Quit. Retrieved from
http://www.quit.org.au/media.asp?ContentID=7728

McGovern, V. (2009). Smoking Gain? Secondhand Smoke Exposure Influences Body Weight,
Lipid Profiles in Offspring. Journal of Environmental Health Perspectives. 117(7), 310.

Milberger et al. (2009). Knowledge of Risk Could Make Pet Owners Stop Smoking. Nursing
Standard, 23(31), 2-3. Doi:10.1136/rc.2008.028282


NIDA (2009). NIDA InfoFacts: Cigarettes and Other Tobacco Products. Retrieved from
http://www.nida.nih.gov/infofacts/tobacco.html.

Saarni, S.E, Pietilainen, K., Kantonen, S., Rissanen, A., Kaprio, J. (2009). Associations of
smoking in Adolescence With Abnormal Obesity in Adulthood: A Follow-Up Study of 5 Birth Cohorts of Finnish Twins. American Journal of Public Health, 99(2), 348-354.
Quitsmokingsupport.com (n.d.) Have you Ever Wondered What’s in a Cigarette? Retrieved
from http://www.quitsmokingsupport.com/whatsinit.htm

Dairy Queen Miracle Treat Day August 7

Start making room in your tummy now: Miracle Treat Day comes to thousands of Dairy Queens across North America on Thursday, August 7.

The way this works: the proceeds from every DQ Blizzard sold that day go to the Children's Miracle Network, which helps families cover their expenses when their kids get sick.

Please try to take time out and grab a blizzard this Thursday and do what you can to spread the word around!

The Human Brain: The Miracle of Reading

I found this fascinating. It is amazing how the human mind works.

The American Psychological Association: Ethics Code

Just like in school districts and work places, the field of Psychology has a code of ethics. A code of ethics is a set of rules which holds higher standards and maintains the integrity in the field of psychological testing. The American Psychological Association identifies nine areas in the ethics code in regards to psychological testing. By going through each of the nine areas which include competence, informed consent, knowledge of results, confidentiality, test security, test construction and publication, automated scoring/interpretation systems, qualified persons, and test user qualifications, one will grasp reasons why higher standards and a code of ethics is instituted in the field of Psychology with respect to psychological testing.

The first area in the ethics code dealing with psychological testing is identified by the APA as competence. In order to administer and employ tests correctly, one has to be competent, according to Hogan, in the “assessment concepts” and “methodology” (590). Hogan goes on to state that the concepts a psychologist must be familiar with are “norms, reliability, validity, and “test construction,” and in regards to methodology “administration, scoring, and technical characteristics” (590). Psychologists who administer psychological tests must always stay current on their understanding and expertise concerning psychological tests.

The second area of the ethics code recognized is informed consent. This basically means that a subject’s participation in testing must be voluntary. In order for it to be voluntary, a person has to be informed in words they will understand exactly what they are agreeing to by consenting to take part in the testing. The participant must also be informed according to Hogan that they may “withdraw consent at any time” (591). For example, if an individual is taking a test on racial ethnicity and after page three feels uncomfortable with a concept he/she is being questioned on, the test taker has the right to withdraw their consent and opt to stop the testing.

In addition to competence and informed consent, another area of the ethics code is knowledge of results. A person that participates in a test has the right to know their results. These results should be easy to comprehend for the participant and above all they should walk away knowing exactly what their results meant.

The next area of the ethics code is confidentiality. Only under extreme circumstances is confidentiality broken without consent. Otherwise a psychologist should keep the results and information gained from the testing completely confidential. This confidentiality also carries over, as stated by Hogan, into “record keeping” (592). The records should be safe and secure at all times unless consent is given by the test taker to have the results released to another professional.

Then, test security is the fifth area of the ethics code. None of the secrets of how the material is scored and interpreted should be released to anyone. There are exceptions to this oath such as in training new psychologists on how to use the instrument. Other than that, however, the oath to preserve the integrity of the psychological testing methods should be kept within the profession of Psychology.

Additionally, test construction and publication plays an important role in the ethics code. As explained by Hogan, test developers “must maintain high standards in developing tests and refrain from making unwarranted claims about the quality of their products” (592). These developers must be knowledgeable in their field and understand the relevance of their test. Hogan points out that the test developer should also be extremely familiar with the concepts of “reliability, validity, and norms” and apply that knowledge when constructing their own tests (592-593).

Another point in the ethics code is automated scoring/interpretation systems. The advances in technology within the psychology field have now created computer programs that can interpret the tests. Nevertheless, psychologists are still responsible for the correct interpretation of the results. As part of the code of ethics, psychologists can not transfer the blame of invalid test interpretation to the software’s creator.

Furthermore, under the code of ethics, Hogan goes on to explain that psychologists are responsible to make sure that unqualified people that are connected to them do not have any part in the testing process. Unqualified people are not allowed to administer the test nor interpret the results. Psychologists have to again take care to preserve the integrity of the tests and only allow trained professionals to assist them in their testing should they need assistance (593).

And lastly, test user qualifications are a very important aspect in the code of ethics. Test users have to have specific qualifications to order and administer tests. According to Hogan, Standards established a three-tier system to define test users credentials; tier one is called Level A which requires “minimal training,” “reading simple directions” (594). Level B calls for “some knowledge of technical characteristics of tests” and Level C “wants advanced training in test theory” (594).

So after reviewing the nine factors that make up the American Psychological Association’s code of ethics, one can see the need for such rules within the field of Psychological testing. In my opinion, the ethics code is vital to the field of Psychology. With each rule, psychologists aspire to keep the integrity of psychological tests. So as one notices, the ethics code is an important part in the field of Psychology.

The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory versus the Beck Depression Inventory

Within the realm of Psychology, psychological testing plays an important role in finding out the mental status of a client. The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) is a comprehensive inventory that has a great deal to offer in the world of Psychology. Also, within the specific domain personality tests, the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) also is a very powerful tool for Psychologists nowadays. By taking a closer look at the key features of the MMPI and the BDI along with the benefits and the disadvantages of the tests, one will note that the disadvantages are minor and that these tests are the vital in today’s society.

The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) was first developed in the year 1942. However, the test that is used today is actually the second revision which was instituted in 1989 and is known as the MMPI-2. According to Hogan, the MMPI-2 requires anywhere from 60 to 90 minutes to finish and has a whopping 567 test items to complete (487). Furthermore, the MMPI-2 is the “most frequently used, most widely researched, and most often referenced tests” explains Hogan (487). The MMPI initially had two main features which were (1) “validity indexes were explicitly used” and (2) “the test used criterion-keying to develop nine clinical scales” which was later changed to a total of ten scales (487). Hogan goes on to state that with the revision of the MMPI of 1989, the MMPI-2 removed all of it’s gender specific references, it used clinical scales instead of diagnostic categories, it developed entirely new norms, and it’s original T-score changed from 70 to 65 (488).

Next, the Beck Depression Inventory offered a new technique for diagnosis of those suffering from any spectrum of depression. The Beck Depression Inventory (BDI-II) is not as predominately ranked in use as the MMPI-2, however, it ranks in at a close second. The BDI-II is a tool in Psychology for measuring the severity of depression. According to Hogan, this test is administered to both adolescents and adults and determines by responses on a four point scale if there is a “major problem” or if it is “not a problem” (501). The BDI-II consists of only 21 items and takes only five to ten minutes to complete entirely. The 21 items constructs a score between 0-63; 0-13 is considered minimal depression; 14-19 is considered mild depression; 20-28 is moderate depression; and 29-53 is considered severe depression (501).

With regard to the MMPI-2, while it is has many benefits to the field of Psychology, it also has a few disadvantages. First off, the MMPI-2 is a very time consuming test. While an average person can finish the test in 60 to 90 minutes, a person with a lower reading ability can take up to two or more hours to complete. Furthermore, Hogan points out that the MMPI-2 only measures a total of four underlying dimensions, two of them being “psychotic mentation” and “neurotic tendencies” (495). However, with the BDI-II compared to the MMPI-2, the benefits outweigh the disadvantages. The BDI is a majorly useful tool for figuring out the severity of depression which is also considered the common cold of psychological ailments. Almost everyone in their lives will suffer at least one bout of depression. Using the BDI-II, it is quick and efficient to find out the severity of a person’s depression. The test again only takes five to ten minutes and all the questions are straightforward, simple, and at a sixth grade reading level.

Although it seems that the BDI-II is a little more progressed, user friendly, and less time consuming, the MMPI-2 offers a variety of benefits. It says a lot that it is ranked number one as the most used test. However, I believe that with more future revisions, the MMPI-2 will become more like the BDI-II. In my opinion, I think that both are useful for measuring different aspects in a person. Even though the MMPI-2 is more time consuming, I think that I would fall into the mainstream in believing that the MMPI-2 will be my number one used test when I earn my PH.D or PSY.D. So, while there are some advantages and some disadvantages to the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (2) and the Beck Depression Inventory (2), it is clear that both are vital in the field of Psychology. They are a pertinent tool for Psychologists and both the comprehensive inventory known as the MMPI-2 and the specific domain personality test known as the BDI-II are extremely vital in today’s society.

Projective Personality Techniques

Projective techniques are quite controversial in today’s society. While being a staple in the field of Psychology for many years, projective techniques are a very enthralling subject. Personality tests such as the Rorschach have made their way into movies, cartoons, and the media with some guest appearances. Some people think that these types of projective tests are pointless, while others see them as a window into a person’s soul. When examining the characteristics, uses, and forewarnings, one will be more informed on the projective personality techniques and exactly what projective techniques are doing in the field of Psychology.

As noted by Hogan, projective tests embody two main characteristics. First off, the test items are usually somewhat ambiguous. By saying that the test’s questions are ambiguous, it is meant that it is hard to tell what the test’s items are exactly trying to measure. The second characteristic of personality techniques is that they are in a constructed-response format. These two characteristics relate to the projective hypothesis because “if the stimulus for a response is ambiguous, then the response itself will be determined by the examinee’s personality dynamics” according to Hogan (521). Furthermore, with the constructed-response format, the test taker’s “response[s] will be formulated in terms of the person’s desires, fantasies, inclinations, fears, and motives” (521).

In regards to the uses of projective techniques, there are core two uses. Projective techniques are used for “assessment of individual cases in clinical, counseling, and school psychology.” Besides being used in clinical, counseling, and school psychology, projective techniques are also utilized in research. There are certain indicators that prompt the use of personality tests. For example, if a child or adult has a low reading ability, a projective test is usually preferred to written test. A projective test would not require any reading since most personality tests are verbal. Also, it is harder to “fake good” or “fake bad” with personality tests because of the ambiguity of the stimuli. And thirdly, projective tests may be beneficial for a therapist in judging a client’s initial basis (524).

Furthermore, for example, with an intelligence test, there is a specific set of rules that must be followed by a psychologist when administering a personality test to a patient or client. So, when someone else looks at the results of a non-personality test like an Intelligence test for example, they have a good idea of what was asked on the test, that the entire test was completed, and that the test was scored properly. With a personality test such at the Thematic Apperception Test, not every single card is used and instruction for the test’s administration is very simplistic. So unlike an intelligence test, it would be hard for someone who did not administer the test to exactly know the results and what was done within the test period. The same goes for the Rorschach inkblot test with the numerous numbers of cards and only a few being selected for the patient.

Personally, I am one that believes in projective personality techniques. I think that the free-response format allows a psychologist to truly understand a person. Knowing whether a person views a neutral picture of a situation as evil and making up a story behind it, there is no other test that can create that connection and deep expression of what they are thinking and feeling. When I am done with graduate school and receive my PSY.D or PH.D, I know that these are definitely tools that I am going to utilize in my therapy practices.

So in conclusion, after going through the characteristics, uses, and forewarnings of projective personality techniques, I have come to the conclusion that they are an important asset to any Psychologist for school, clinical, and counseling. While the test questions are ambiguous, I still feel that the personality test will give me a better understanding of my patient than a written test. Especially if I am counseling children, I think that a personality test would be more appropriate to start off and get to know my client better. Even though a test like the Rorschach is not being taught in schools as a valuable tool, I believe that the uses are as important as the Thematic Apperception Test. Ambiguously open-ended tests (like the Rorschach and Thematic Apperception Test) let a client splash their personality all over the pages and let the words flow from their subconscious. I am glad a facility like Roosevelt contains some psychology staff members that still find it pertinent to teach tests such as the Rorschach to future generations of Psychologist.

Personality Tests: Content, Criterion-Keying, Factor Analysis, and Theory Driven

An individual’s personality is as complex and personal as a fingerprint; yet there are personality tests out there nowadays that allow insight into an individual’s personality and / or emotional depths. In regards to personality, there are four major types of methods that a test developer can choose from when deciding what type of test he / she would like to construct. The tests options consist of content method, criterion-keying, factor analysis, and theory driven with each test having its own strengths and weaknesses.

First off, content method is a popular form of personality tests. An example of a content method personality test that might be given to patients during their therapy session is the Woodworth Personal Data Sheet. For example, if a person is using a content method test that is supposed to be measuring introversion, then the set of questions within the test would be dealing with how the individual relates to others. By the way a person answers his / her questions, the individual’s score can give an insight into his / her personality and tell if one of his / her traits is introversion or extraversion. On the plus side, the content method is simple and defines clearly what the test is seeking to evaluate. It is also easy to generate items using this approach and has good validity. However, some of the weaknesses of using the content method are that the responses are subject to distortion and, according to Hogan, one is able to “fake good” or “fake bad” when an individual taking the test knows what is being gauged (459).

Another test that is used in measuring personality is called criterion-keying. Criterion-keying uses the approach of “discrimination” (459). Two examples of this approach are the MMPI and the Strong Interest Inventory. Two well defined groups are used in the criterion-keying method; one group is deemed the “normal” group and the other is deemed the “criterion” group. The criterion group is distinctly defined as having a specific condition. Like the content method, the criterion-keying approach’s strength is that it is direct and simplistic. Another plus is that this approach also promotes the possibility of fresh research applications. On the other hand, according to Hogan, three of the test’s drawbacks are (a) “it’s extreme atheoretical orientation limits the generalizability of score interpretation,” (b) criterion-keying can only be used when well-defined criterion groups are present, (c) interpretation can be inaccurate (461).

Besides content method and criterion-keying, there is another personality test type that is known as factor analysis; this type of personality test, according to Hogan, “bring[s] order to an undifferentiated mass of items and responses” (462). Also like the criterion-keying approach, factor analysis also produces a hefty amount of research. Conversely, the first weakness of factor analysis is that much of the test’s validity is based on the original “pool of items” (462). In addition to the items, there are numerous disputes among professionals about the correctness of the diverse methodologies. Then there is the point that most of the final results of factor analysis tests are fluid versus definitive. A great example of factor analysis is the NEO Personality Inventory.

And lastly, the fourth and final major personality test is known as theory-driven. Hogan explains that “the test developer adopts a particular theory about the human personality, the build test items to reflect [his / her] theory” (463). This theory can be broad or can be narrow depending on the test developer and how much he / she wants to cover within his / her theory. One advantage of the theory-driven approach is that it supplies an “operational definition” which encourages further research on the matter which can lead to better development of the test (463). Two core shortcomings of the theory-driven approach are the theory’s validity and how soundly the test mirrors the test developer’s theory.

All in all, by taking a look at content method, criterion-keying, factor analysis, and theory-driven personality tests, it is noted that each test has its own strengths and weaknesses. When designing a test, a test developer must choose which personality test method is right for them. In my opinion, there is not one correct or an incorrect method to choose. Each method, whether it is content method, criterion-keying, factor analysis, or theory-driven, has its own benefits and detriments. A test developer would just have to choose the method that would work best with his / her ideas and aspirations for what he / she envisions their test being.